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In 1834, Zollverein or customs union was established by the Prussia, and most of the German states joined this. According to this, tariff barriers were abolished, and the number of currencies was reduced from thirty to two.

At Dien Bien Phu the French forces were smartly handled by the Vietminh forces led by General Vo Nguyen Giap. The French Commander, Navarre, faced several problems in the battle. 

(i) The valley where French garrisons were located flooded in the monsoon. 

(ii) The area was covered with bushes, making it difficult for the troops and tanks to move, or trace the Vietminh anti-aircraft guns hidden in the jungle. 

(iii) Supplies and reinforcements could not reach the French garrison. 

(iv) The wounded French soldiers could not be taken to the hospitals. 

(v) The French airstrip became incompetent because of continuous missiles fire. But the Vietminh were quite well acquainted with the places around and they successfully surrounded the French garrisons in the valley below, digging trenches and tunnels to move without being detected.

This led to the defeat of the French forces in the battle of Dien Bien Phu and it soon became a very important symbol of struggle. It gave confidence to Vietminh of their capabilities. The stories of the battle were retold in villages and cities to inspire other people also.

(a) Ballygunj

Correct option is (b) Rishra

Correct Answer is: (a) Industry

The three steps taken by the French to solve the problem of plague in Vietnam are given below

(i) The French started a massive rat hunt in 1902.

(ii) The French offered the Vietnamese cash for catching the rats. Rats were caught in thousands, by May 30 alone 20,000 rats were caught, but the rat menace did not end.

(iii) The French paid money when the rat catcher showed a rat tail as proof of a rat killed.

(iv) When they saw that the plague was not stopped by the rat hunt policy, they scrapped the bounty programme and decided to find other measures to stop it .

The three steps taken to solve the problem of plague in Vietnam are given below: 

(i) Rat hunt was started in 1902. The French hired Vietnamese workers and paid them for each rat they caught. 

(ii) Bounty programme was started. Those who did the dirty work of entering sewers could negotiate a bounty. The bounty was paid when a tail was given as a proof that a rat had been killed. 

(iii) Clearing of the large sewers on a regular basis as they had become an ideal and protected breeding ground for rats.

1. Textile

2. Climatic changes

3. Tourism

4. Agriculture

(i) Some policy-makers were in favour of the French language as the medium of instruction because according to them this would promote French culture in Vietnam.
(ii) It would create an 'Asiatic France' solidly tied to European France.
(iii) The educated people in Vietnam would respect French sentiments and ideas, French culture and work for the French.
(iv) Another group of thinkers opposed French being the only medium of instruction.
(v) They suggested that Vietnamese be taught in lower classes and French in the higher classes.
(vi) The few who learned French and acquired French culture were to be rewarded with French citizenship

Landed aristocracy was the dominant class in Europe in the mid- 18th century among the social and the Political class. Their unity was based on their collective agenda even though they were a small group. They hold estates and townhouses and spoke French to maintain the diplomatic view.

(i) The French acted contrary to the ideals of humanity and justice. They deprived the Vietnamese people of all liberties. They imposed on them inhuman laws and built more prisons than schools. They mercilessly killed Vietnamese patriots and suppressed public opinion. 

(ii) The principles of the declaration of independence made Vietnamese conscious of their right to be free and independent. It also drew attention to the injustice which the French were doing towards the Vietnamese. This inspired the people of Vietnam to fight for their rights and freedom.

Colon in Indo China means - A French citizen living in Vietnam.

French and Education:

(i) They countered and dismantled the traditional education system.

(ii) They established French schools.

(iii) Introduced French language for Vietnamese.

(iv) Introduced deliberate policy of failing children.

(v) Their text glorified French culture and justified colonial rule.

(vi) Their education system introduced of French science and hygiene.

• With widespread nationalist feelings among the middle-class Germans, the first major step towards the unification of Germany was taken in 1848. This was done through the convening of the Frankfurt Parliament through which the German people tried to unite the different regions of the German confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. But the monarchy and the military with the aid of the large landowners called Junkars of Prussia thwarted this attempt of nation-building.  

• After this failed attempt, the process of unification of Germany was taken up by Prussia, whose Prime Minister, Otto von Bismarck was the main architect of the process. He was aided by the Prussian bureaucracy and the military in his effort. 

• Bismarck’s main objective was to unify Germany, and he believed that this could only be done through military power and not by the common people. This led to three wars over seven years against Austria, Denmark, and France. 

• The wars ended with Prussian victory and led to the unification of the German Confederation. 

• The process of unification ended in January 1871, when the Prussian king William I was crowned the German emperor in a ceremony at Versailles.

German unification was a long and complicated process. At the beginning of the 19th century, Germany was not a unified country. It was a collection of autocratic states (39 in all), where only the very wealthy and powerful ruled. It was a difficult affair to unite Germany. It took a long time to unite Germany into one country and the credit goes to Bismarck. He fought three wars to unify Germany.

Danish-Prussian War in 1864: The 1864 Danish War helped Bismarck strengthen his internal position in Prussia. Danish King Friedrich VII died in 1864. Many European royals were independent having undersized territories. Often these territories were divided by different laws, customs, and even languages. Without much effort, Prussia defeated Danish. The Danish War was the first step in the unification of Germany.

Austro-Prussian War in 1866: In 1866 relations between Austria and Prussia worsened over the control of Schleswig-Holstein. However, the real concern was to emerge as the dominant force in Germany. Bismarck provoked quarrels with the Austrians to gain supremacy in Germany. He tactfully secured Italian support and French neutrality. Prussian troops occupied Holstein and the “Seven Weeks War” broke out between Prussia and Austria. During the Seven Weeks War (1866) Austria was totally crushed by Prussian forces at the Battle of Sadowa, and was completely removed from any role in German affairs. An extraordinary lenient treaty “The Treaty of Prague” was signed to expel Austria from the German Confederation so that Austria did not remain an enemy of Prussia. Prussia was now able to dominate the other German states without fear of Austrian intervention.

North German Confederation in 1866: After defeating Austria, Bismarck organised the North German Confederation in 1866. It was composed of Prussia and 17 small northern German states. It contained all German states. North of the Main River was successfully controlled by Prussia. The remaining German states were eventually forced to join, including Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. Bismarck was now ready to take on France.

Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71: To complete German unification Bismarck had to deal with France. In 1870 Bismarck purposely created war with France. Bismarck suggested a German candidate’s name for the vacant Spanish throne. The hidden aim behind this move was to make the French emperor Napoleon III angry and declare war on Prussia and the North German Confederation. Prussia was completely victorious over France at the Battle of Sedan in 1870 and gained control over Alsace-Lorraine.

For unification Bismarck followed ‘Blood and Iron’ policy. Thus, the long planned journey of German unification was completed in 1871 A.D.

Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha

Yes, it is true that artists found a way out by personifying a nation. In the 18th and 19th century, artists began personifying a nation in an allegory. It means artists personified nation as a female figure not as a woman of real life but as a figure with physical existence and in concrete form. Also, Germania, the female figure personified as the German nation. In this figure, she wears the crown of oak leaves which stands for Heroism. There is one more image where Germania is standing with the sword for protecting the Rhine River. In the 19th century, a popular Christian name – Christened Marianne was shown as a symbol of People’s nation. Her characteristics were – the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Her statues were made and also she was shown on the coins and stamps to make people remember their unity and identity.

Phan Chu Trinh was a nationalist in Vietnam. He opposed Phan Boi Chan for supporting the monarchical form of government.

Explanation: He helped in the development of Vietnam.

The USA forces withdrew in 1974. The NLF occupied the presidential palace on 30 April 1975 in Saigon. They later unified Vietnam into a nation.

Phan Boi Chu and Phan Chu Trinh’s were great nationalist of Vietnam. In Japan, both discussed their visions of Vietnam independence. But they differed a lit. Both pursued the same goal i.e. liberation of Vietnam from the French rule but with different means. Their differing views are given below:

Phan Chu Trinh’s objective for Vietnam was to make it a democratic republic, along the western ideals of liberty. He accused the French of not following their own national ideals, and demanded for the setting up of legal and educational institutions alongside the development of agriculture and industries. Unlike Phan Boi Chau, Phan Chu Trinh was extremely opposed to the monarchy. Hence, their ideas had at their roots this fundamental difference.

Phan Chu Trinh was a great nationalist of Vietnam. He was dead against the French rule in his country and wanted to liberate it from the foreign grip.

The Four ideas of Phan Chu Trinh:

(i) Against Monarchy to Promote Popular Right: Phan Chu Trinh believed in overthrowing the monarchy to promote popular rights. He thought that monarchy would only suppress the right of the people. Therefore, he wanted to establish a democratic republic which alone could bring smile on the face of the Vietnamese. 

(ii) Western Civilisation: Phan Chu Trinh did not want a complete rejection of western civilisation. He was of the opinion that the Vietnamese would absorb the good points of the western culture and reject the bad ones. 

(iii) Development of Democratic Ideals: Phan Chu Trinh always favoured the democratic ideals of the west. He appreciated the revolutionary ideals that became popular during the French Revolution but at the same time he blamed the French for not following those great ideals.

In olden times the best way to present an idea was through symbolic personifications. This was the most common and appealing way to invite people’s attention. From 1789 females appeared in paintings as symbol of liberty and revolution. During the French Revolution, many symbolic personifications of ‘Liberty’ and ‘Reason’ appeared. Marianne was the female figure invented by artists in the nineteenth century to represent the French nation. Her characteristics were drawn from those of Liberty and the Republic—the red cap, the tricolour, the cockade. Statues of Marianne were erected in public places to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and to persuade them to identify with it. Marianne images were marked on coins and stamps.

Similarly, Germania became the symbol of the German nation. This work was done by the artist Philip Veit. He depicted Germania as a female figure standing against a background where beams of sunlight shone through the tricolour fabric of the national flag. Germania was wearing a crown of oak leaves, as the German oak stands for heroism

The role of women as warriors :
(i) As brave fighters seen shooting down planes.
(ii) They were portrayed as young, brave and dedicated.
(iii) Stories were written to show their role in the army.
(iv) Nguyen Thi Xuan was reputed to have shot down a jet with just twenty bullets.
The role of women as workers :
(i) They were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other.
(ii) They were depicted as selflessly working and fighting to save the country.
(iii) Many women joined the resistant movement.

The role of women as warriors :
(i) As brave fighters seen shooting down planes.
(ii) They were portrayed as young, brave and dedicated.
(iii) Stories were written to show their role in the army.
(iv) Nguyen Thi Xuan was reputed to have shot down a jet with just twenty bullets.
The role of women as workers :
(i) They were shown with a rifle in one hand and a hammer in the other.
(ii) They were depicted as selflessly working and fighting to save the country.
(iii) Many women joined the resistant movement.

(a) (i) Even though the U.S. had advanced technology and good medical supplies, casualties were high.
(ii) About 47,244 died in battle and 3,03,704 were wounded who became 100% disabled.
(iii) The phase of struggle with the U.S. was brutal.
(iv) Widespread attacks and use of chemical weapons (Napalm), bombs destroyed many villages and decimated jungles. Civilians died in large numbers.
(b) (i) The effect of the war was felt within the U.S. as well.
(ii) Many were critical of the U.S. joining the war.
(iii)Anger spread when youth were recruited for the war.
(iv) Compulsory service in the armed forces was waived off for university graduates.
(v) Only minorities and children of working-class families were sent to war.

In 1930 a novel by Nhat Linh marked the arrival of the new women in Vietnamese society.

The image of the Vietnamese women was transformed in 1980 when the resolution was passed in a constitution granting equal rights to men and women in all respects. This helped in a very profound change in the society.

Phan Chu Trinh was a great nationalist of Vietnam. He was dead against the French rule in his country and wanted to liberate it from the foreign grip.

The Four ideas of Phan Chu Trinh:

(i) Against Monarchy to Promote Popular Right: Phan Chu Trinh believed in overthrowing the monarchy to promote popular rights. He thought that monarchy would only suppress the right of the people. Therefore, he wanted to establish a democratic republic which alone could bring smile on the face of the Vietnamese. 

(ii) Western Civilisation: Phan Chu Trinh did not want a complete rejection of western civilisation. He was of the opinion that the Vietnamese would absorb the good points of the western culture and reject the bad ones. 

(iii) Development of Democratic Ideals: Phan Chu Trinh always favoured the democratic ideals of the west. He appreciated the revolutionary ideals that became popular during the French Revolution but at the same time he blamed the French for not following those great ideals.

In the 18th and 19th-century, artists began personifying a nation in an allegory. It means artists personified nation as a female figure not as a woman of real life but as a figure with physical existence and in concrete form. Thus, nation personified as a female figure became an allegory.

NOTE: Allegory is the term given to the story, poem or to a picture or to the feeling when its hidden meaning is revealed through personifying it. Here, the nation is personified as a person.

(i) After the Vietminh recaptured Hanoi from Japan in 1945, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was formed of which Ho Chi Minh became the Chairman. 

(ii) The new republic faced several challenges. The French tried to regain control by using the emperor, Bao Dai, as their puppet. 

(iii) The war began again between the Vietminh and the French. This war continued for eight years. 

(iv) In the beginning of the war the Vietminh were forced to retreat to the hills. But finally the French were defeated in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu. 

(v) The Vietminh annihilated and captured more than 16,000 soldiers of the French Expeditionary corps. 

(vi) The entire commanding staff, including a general, 16 colonels and 1,749 officers, were taken prisoner. 

(vii) After the French defeat, peace negotiations were held in Geneva in which the Vietnamese were persuaded to accept the division of the country. 

(viii) North and South Vietnam were split. Ho Chi Minh and the Communists took power in the North Vietnam while Bao Dai’s regime was put in power in the South Vietnam.

After the First Battle of Panipat Delhi came under the rule of Babur and he was declared the emperor of Hindustan.

There were several reasons for Babur’s victory at Panipat. 

1. Babur had used artillery which was unknown to the Indians. 

2. His army was better trained than the Sultan’s army and his cavalry was far superior to the Indian cavalry. 

3. He also took over Agra, which was made the capital. On April 27th, 1526 he declared himself “Emperor of Hindustan”.

Zollverein was customs union formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia and joined by most of the German sates.

(i) Like Germany, Italy too had a long history of political fragmentation. 

(ii) Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational, Habsburg Empire. 

(iii) During the middle of the nineteenth century, Italy was divided into seven states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. 

(iv) The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the centre was ruled by the Pope and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. 

(v) Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form, and it still had many regional and local variations.

Vietnamese women provide to be great fighters. They reflected the following values: 

(i) Incredible bravery 

(ii) Nationalism 

(iii) Sacrifice 

(iv) Selfless work 

(v) Nursing spirit.

(b) German nation

(i) The Ho Chi Minh trail had great significance in the Vietnamese war against the US. It symbolises how the Vietnamese used their limited resources to great advantage. 

(ii) The trail, an immense network of footpaths and roads, was used to transport men and materials from the north to the south.

(iii) The trail was improved from the late 1950s, and from 1967 about 20,000 North Vietnamese troops came south each month on this trail 

(iv) The trail had support bases and hospitals along the way. In some parts supplies were transported in trucks but mostly they were carried by porters. 

(v) Most of the trail was outside Vietnam in neighbouring Laos, and Cambodia with branch lines extending into South Vietnam

Culture played an important role in creating the idea of the “nation” in Europe in the following ways.

(i) Romanticism, a cultural movement, sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists criticised the glorification of reason and Science and focused instead.

on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. Their effort was to create a sense of a shared collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation.

(ii) Collection and recording forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building. Karol Kurpinski, for example, celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

(iii) Language too played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. After Russian occupation, the Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was imposed everywhere. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

(i) Culture played a vital role in creating the idea of the nation: art and poetry, stories and music helped express and arouse nationalist feelings. Romantic artists and poets made deliberate efforts to create a sense of shared collective heritage, a common cultural past as the basis of a nation.

(ii) The German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder stated that true German culture was to be discovered among the common people. It was through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances that the true spirit of nation was popularised. So collecting and recording these forms of folk culture was essential to the project of nation-building.

The French painter Delacroix depicted an incident through his painting in which 20,000 Greeks were assumed to have been killed by Turks. By dramatising the incident and focusing on the suffering of women and children Delacroix wanted to appeal to the emotions of the spectators and create sympathy for the Greeks.

Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music, turning folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka into nationalist symbols.

(iii) Language played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. Regional languages had always been an obstacle in the unification of a country. To overcome it, a common national language was adopted. The Polish language was forced out of schools and the Russian language was made obligatory everywhere.

(iv) In 1831, an armed rebellion against Russian rule took place but it was crushed. After the failure of this rebellion, members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance. Polish became a common language in church gatherings and all religious instruction. As a result, several priests and bishops were put in jail by the Russian authorities as punishment for their refusal to preach in Russian. The use of Polish came to be seen as a symbol of the struggle against Russian dominance.

The forces of Austria and Prussia were defeated by the French Revolutionary forces at Valmy

The treaty of Prague.

Tuzuk-i-Baburi it is written in flawless Turkish, and considered to be one of the best autobiographies in the world.

(i) The German economists thought in terms of national economy. They were concerned about how the nation could develop and what economic measures could forge their nation together. 

(ii) Friedrich List was a Professor of Economics at the University of Tübingen in Germany. He explained that the Zollverein aimed at binding the Germans economically into a nation. He viewed that it would strengthen the nation materially as much by protecting its interest externally as by stimulating its internal productivity.

Nation state is the one in which the majority of the citizens come together to develop a sense of common identity and shared history or descent.

(i) It is the painting of Germania. Philip Veit painted it in 1848. 

(ii) Germania is the symbolic personification of ‘Liberty’ and ‘Reason’. She becomes the symbol of the German nation.

Giuseppe Mazzini, Count Camillo de Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi.

(i) Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa on June 22nd, 1807 in a middle class family. 

(ii) He was a patriot, Italian revolutionary, founder of Young Italy and an important figure in liberal nationalism. 

(iii) He was one of the three revolutionaries who made a significant contribution in Italian unification. His efforts led to the unification of Italy. 

(iv) In 1830, he joined the revolutionary Carbonari (a secret association with political purposes) for which he was arrested soon and put in jail. 

(v) There he organised a new political society called Young Italy, whose basic principle was the union of the several states and kingdoms into one republic. 

(vi) He founded underground societies like Young Italy in Marseilles, and Young Europe in Berne. 

(vii) To evoke people’s reaction Mazzini wrote several essays that voiced the injustice to the working class such as the peasants, professionals, artists, and intellectuals. 

(viii) He was elected as a member of a constituent assembly and acquired the responsibility of framing a constitution for the Roman Republic.

The three values that can be reflected from the term ‘liberalism’ are: 

(i) Freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law. 

(ii) Concept of government by consent. 

(iii) Abolition of state imposed restrictions on the movement of goods and capital.