( a) Guiseppe Mazzini -:

• Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary.

• He wanted to unify Italy into a single unified Republic.

• Following his model, secret societies were set up in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland.

• Mazzini's relentless opposition to monarchy, and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives.

(b) Count Camillo de Cavour :-

• Cavour became the Chiej Minister of Piedmont in 1852. His MAIN aim was to Effect the emancipation of Italy from Austria. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. But.2. he is known as the real maker of Italy'. Through a TACTFUL diplomatic alliance with France, he succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859.

(c) The Greek war of independence:-

• Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century.

• The growth of revolutionary nationalism C.4. in Europe sparked off a struggle for independence amongst the Greeks which began in 1821.

• Nationalists in Greece got support from other Greeks living in exile and also from many West Europeans, who had sympathies for the ancient Greek culture.

• Poets and artists lauded Greece as the cradle of European civilization, and mobilised public opinion to support its struggle against a Muslim empire.

• The English poet, Lord Byron organised funds, and later went to fight in the war, where he died of fever in 1824.

• Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognised Greece as an independent nation.

(d) Frankfurt Parliament:-

• It is the name of the German National Assembly founded during the Revolution of 1848 that tried to unite Germany in a democratic way. Thee assembly was attended by 831 deputies. The members had drafted the constitution for a new German nation. The new constitution as was rejected by Friedrich Wilhelm IV, the King of Prussia. Though the Frankfurt Parliament failed to unite Germany, it had far-reaching consequences on Germany.

(e) The role of women in NATIONALIST struggles:-

• A large number of women participated in the movement for the unification of Germany. They had formed their own political associations, started newspapers and taken part in political MEETINGS, and demonstrations. Universal male suffrage was adopted in the country, and the women were HOPING for the voting right. But when the Frankfurt Parliament was convened in the church of St. Paul, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the visitor's gallery.

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