Anti-social Personality Disorder- Symptoms- (According to DSM-IV-TR) 

(i) A pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others occurring since age 15 years as indicated by atleast three of the following : 

1. Failure to consider social norms and repeated law breaking. 

2. Deceitfulness. 

3. Impulsivity or failure to plan ahead. 

4. Irritability and aggressiveness. 

5. Reckless disregard for safety of self or others. 

6. Consistent irresponsibility. 

7. Lack of remorse. 

Causes : 

(i) Biological factors : 

Genetic influences : There is moderate heritability for anti-social or criminal behaviour. Researchers found that individuals with low MAO-A activity are more likely to develop Anti-social personality disorder, if they had experienced early maltreatment. 

Neurological factors : Certain brain areas like temporal lobe and pre-frontal cortex regulate mood and behaviour. Serotonin is the neurotransmitter that can be linked with impulsive and aggressive behaviour.

Psychosocial factors : Low fear hypothesis : Research suggests that psychopaths have low trait anxiety and show poor conditioning of fear. They are slow at learning and stop responding in order to avoid punishment. Emotional deficits : There is a more general difficulty among psychopaths to process and understand the meaning of emotional stimuli. There is a lack of empathy. 

Early parental loss, rejection and inconsistency : The aggression is a result of damaging effects of parental rejection, abuse and neglect accompanied by inconsistent discipline. 

Dependent Personality Disorder (According to DSM-IV-TR) Symptoms : 

(i) A pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of that leads to submissive and clinging behaviour and fear of separation as indicated by at least five of the following : 

1. Difficulty making everyday decisions without advice or assurance from others. 

2. Need others to take responsibility for major areas of life. 

3. Difficulty expressing disagreement with others because of fear of loss of support. 

4. Difficulty initiating project. 

5. Goes to excessive lengths to obtain nurturance or support from others. 

6. Feels uncomfortable or helpless when alone. 

7. Urgently seeks another relationship when a close one ends. 

8. Unrealistic preoccupation with fears of being left to take care of himself/herself. 

Causes: 

Biological factors: 

1. Genetic and personality factors : There may be a very small genetic influence on depen¬dent personality trait. Personality traits such as neuroticism and agreeableness are predominant in dependant personality disorder, have a genetic component. 

Psycho-social factors: 

1. Environmental factors : People with partially genetic based predisposition to dependence and anxiousness may be prone to adverse effects of parents who are authoritarian and over protective (not promoting autonomy and individuation) in their child, instead reinforcing dependent behaviour. 

2. Cognitive factors-Cognitive theorists describe the underlying maladaptive schemas as involving core beliefs about weakness and competence and needing others to survive such as “I am completely helpless”, “I can function only if I have access to somebody competent”.