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Answer» Sources:\xa0There is a rich collection of sources to study Roman history, like -\xa0texts,\xa0documents and\xa0material remains.\xa01.\xa0Archaeological :\xa0a) Amphitheater,\xa0b) Amphorae,\xa0c) Colosseum,\xa0d) Statues,\xa0e) Aqueducts2.\xa0(Literary) Written :\xa0(A)\xa0Texts - Histories written by Contemporary Historians (B) Documents3.\xa0Aerial PhotographsDocumentary sources include mainly inscriptions and\xa0papyri. Inscriptions were usually cuton stone, so a large number survive, in both Greek and Latin.The ‘papyrus’ was a reed-like plant that grew along the banks of the Nile in Egypt and was processed to produce a writing material that was very widely used in everyday life.Thousands of contracts, accounts, letters and official documents survive ‘on papyrus’ and have been published by scholars who are called ‘papyrologists.Boundaries of Roman EmpireThe ancient Roman empire which was spread across the three continents namely - Europe, Asia and Africa.\xa0To the\xa0North, the boundaries of the empire were formed by two great rivers - the\xa0Rhine and the Danube.To the\xa0South, by the huge expanse of desert called the\xa0Sahara.To the\xa0East river Euphrates\xa0and to the\xa0West Atlantic Ocean.This vast stretch of territory was the Roman Empire. That is why Roman Empire is called\xa0an Empire across Three Continents.The Mediterranean Sea is called the heart of Rome’s empire.Division of Roman Empire:\xa0The Roman Empire can broadly be divided into two phases, ‘early’ and‘late’, divided by the third century as a sort of historical watershed between them.In other words, the whole period from the beginning of Roman Empire to the main part of the third century can be called the ‘early empire’, and the period from the third century to the end called the ‘late empire’ or \'late\xa0antiquity\'.THE EARLY EMPIREAdministration:\xa0i. The Army -\xa0ii. The Senate -\xa0iii. the Aristocracy - iv. The Emperor -\xa0v. Republic - vi. Provincial Territory -\xa0vii. TaxationMany languages were spoken in the empire, but for the officially\xa0Latin and Greek were the most widely used.The regime established by\xa0Augustus, the first emperor, in 27 BCE was called the ‘Principate’ (which means he was ‘leading citizen’, \'Princeps\' in Latin, not the absolute ruler). He ruled till 14 BCE and brought to an end the chaotic condition prevailing in Roman empire.The\xa0Principate was advised by the Senate, which had existed in Rome for centuries. This body which had controlled Rome earlier, in the days when it was a Republic, and remained a body representing the aristocracy, that is, the wealthiest families of Roman and, later, Italian descent, mainly landowners.Next to the emperor and the\xa0Senate, the other key institution of imperial rule was the army. Rome had professional conscripted\xa0army, which was forcibly recruited. Military service was compulsory for certain groups or categories of the population for a minimum of 25 years.The emperor, the aristocracy and the army were the three main ‘players’ in the political history of the empire. The success of individual emperors depended on their control of the army, and when the armies were divided, the result usually was\xa0civil war.\xa0Except for one notorious year (69\xa0CE), when four emperors mounted the throne in quick succession.Emperors: a)\xa0Nero, b)\xa0Julius Caesar,\xa0c) Octavian Augustus,\xa0d) Tiberius,\xa0e) TrajanRoman empire made unprecedented growth in the field of literature during Augustan age.\xa0Augustus\xa0played a significant role in expansion of Roman empire.\xa0The ‘Augustan age’ is remembered for the peace it ushered in after decades of internal strife and centuries of military conquest.Augustus appointed\xa0Tiberius, his adopted son, as his successor who ruled from 14-37 CE. The empire he was already so vast that further expansion was felt to be unnecessary.Trajan was a famous Roman emperor who ruled from 98-117 CE. He made an immense contribution in expanding Roman empire. The only major campaign of expansion in the early empire was Trajan’s fruitless occupation of territory across the Euphrates, in the years 113-17 CE abandoned by his successors.Territories:\xa0The Roman Empire had two types of territories -\xa0dependent kingdoms and provincial territory. The Near East was full of dependent kingdoms but they disappeared and were swallowed up by Rome. These kingdoms were exceedingly wealthy, for example Herod’s kingdom yielded 5.4million\xa0denarii\xa0per year, equal to over 125,000 kg of gold per year.A city in the Roman Empire was an urban centre with its own magistrates, city council and a ‘territory’ containing villages which were under its jurisdiction. Thus, one city could not be in the territory of another city, but villages almost always were included.THE THIRD CENTURY CRISIS: The first two centuries were free from\xa0civil war,\xa0therefore, it was known as period of peace, prosperity and economic expansion.\xa0External warfare\xa0was also much less common in the first two centuries. But the third century brought in the first sign of internal conflict.\xa0From the 230s, the Roman Empire found\xa0itself fighting on several fronts simultaneously. An aggressive dynasty called\xa0the ‘Sasanians\', emerged in 225 which expanded rapidly just within 15 years in the direction of the Euphrates. Shapur I, the Iranian ruler, claimed he had crushed Roman army of 60,000 and even captured the eastern capital of Antioch.\xa0Simultaneously, a whole series\xa0of Germanic tribes or rather tribal confederacies began to move against the Rhine and Danube frontiers,\xa0and the entire period from 233 to 280 saw repeated invasions of a whole lone of provinces that stretched from the Black Sea to the Alps and Southern Germany. The Romans were forced to abandon much of the territory beyond the Danube.There was a rapid succession of emperors\xa0in this century (25 emperors in 47 years!) is an obvious symptom of the strains faced by the empire in this period.Gender, Literacy, CultureThe system of nuclear family in the Roman society was one of its modern feature. The family used to be patriarchal in nature. Slaves\xa0were\xa0included in the family.\xa0Marriages were generally arranged, and there is no doubt that women were often subject to domination by their husbands.The literacy rate was casual and varied greatly between different parts of the empire.The cultural diversity of the empire was reflected in many ways. Numerous languages that were spoken in Roman Empire were - Aramaic, Coptic,Punic, Berber and Celtic. But many of these linguistic cultures were purely oral, at least until a script was invented for them. Among the above mentioned languages Armenian began to be written as late as the fifth century.A. Sources of EntertainmentColosseum - Huge place where gladiators fought\xa0with beast.\xa0It could accommodate 60,000 people.Amphitheatre - It was used for military drill and for staging entertainments for the soldiers.Urban populations also enjoyed a much higher level of\xa0entertainment, for example, one calendar tells us that\xa0spectacula\xa0(shows) filled no less than 176 days of the year!B. CRAFT & INDUSTRYMintingMiningAmphoraeMaking Papyrus scrollsPublic baths\xa0were a striking feature of Roman urban lifeEconomic expansion\xa0The empire had a substantial economic infrastructure of harbours, mines, quarries, brickyards, olive oil factories, etc. Wheat, wine and olive-oil were traded and consumed in huge quantities, and they came mainly from Spain, the Gallic provinces, North Africa, Egypt and, to a lesser extent, Italy, where conditions were best for these crops.Liquids like wine and olive oil were transported in containers called ‘amphorae’.Spanish producers succeeded in capturing markets for olive oil from their Italian counterparts. This would only have happened if Spanish producers supplied better quality oil at lower prices.The Spanish olive oil of this period was mainly carried in a container called ‘Dressel 20’.The empire included many regions that had a reputation for exceptional fertility. Italy, Sicily, Egypt and southern Spain were all among the most densely settled or wealthiest parts of the empire. The best kinds of wine, wheat and olive oil came mainly from numerous estates of these territories.Diversified applications of waterpower around the Mediterranean as well as advances in water-powered milling technology, the use of hydraulic mining techniques in the Spanish gold and silver mines and the gigantic industrial scale on which those mines were worked.The existence of well-organized commercial and banking networks and the widespread use of money are\xa0all\xa0indications of Roman economy.A strong tradition of Roman law had emerged by the fourth century, and this acted as a brake on even the most fearsome emperors.WORKERS:Slavery was an institution deeply rooted in the ancient world, both in the Mediterranean and in the Near East, and and not even Christianity when it emerged and triumphed as the state religion (in the fourth century) seriously challenged this institution. Under Augustus there were still 3 million slaves in a total Italian population of 7.5 million.With establishment of peace in the first century, the supply of slaves tended to decline and the users of slave labour had to turn either to slave breeding or\xa0to cheaper substitutes.The Roman agricultural writers paid a great deal of attention to the management of labour.\xa0Columella, a first-century writer who came from the south of Spain, recommended that landowners should keep a reserve stock of implements and tools, twice as many as they needed, so that production could be continuous, ‘for the loss in slave labour time exceeds the cost of such items’.The position of slave in Roman Empire was miserable as they were forced to work on the estate for 10 to 18 hours.\xa0SOCIAL DIVISION(A)\xa0Presbyterian(i) The Aristocratic class(ii) Second Class(B) Plebeian(i) The lower Class(ii) SlavesThe social structures of the empire as follows: Senators,\xa0Equites (horse men and knights), the respectable section of the people (middle class), lower class and finally the slaves.In the early third century when the Senate numbered roughly 1,000, approximately half of all senators still came from Italian families. By the\xa0late\xa0empire,the senators and the Equites had\xa0merged\xa0into a unified and expanded aristocracy.The ‘middle’ class now consisted of the considerable mass of persons connected with imperial service in the bureaucracy. Below them were the vast mass of the lower classes known collectively\xa0ashumiliores\xa0(literally- ‘Lower’).They comprised a rural labour force.The late Roman bureaucracy, both the higher and middle echelons, was a comparatively affluent group because it drew the bulk of its salary in gold and invested much of this in buying up assets like land. There was a great deal of corruption, especially in the judicial system and in the administration of military supplies.


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