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3101.

Question : What are DNA vaccines ?

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Solution :Genetic immunisation by using DNA VACCINES is a novel approach that came into being in 1990. The immune response of the body is stimulated by a DNA molecule. A DNA vaccineconsists of a gene encoding an antigenic protein, inserted onto aplasmid, and then incorporated into the cells in a target animal. DNA instructs the cells to make antigenic molecules which are DISPLAYED on its surfaces. This would EVOKE an antibody response to the free floating antigen secreted by the cells. The DNA vaccine cannot cause the disease as it contains onlycopies of a few of its GENES. DNA vaccines are relatively easy and inexpensive to design and PRODUCE.
Discussion
3102.

Question : What are different phases of cell cycle ?

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ANSWER :`G_1`,S,`G_2`,M,C
Discussion
3103.

Question : What are different patterns of Biodiversity ? Describe latitudinal gradients.

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Solution :Biodiversity is not UNIFORM throughout the world.
It varies with the changes in latitude and attitude.
For many groups of animals and plants there are specific conditions.
Because plants and animals are more diverse in AREAS, which are best SUITED for their survival.
Discussion
3104.

Question : What are differences between reproductive parts and seeds of gymnosperms and angiosperms ?

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SOLUTION :TheN/AgymnospermsN/AproduceN/AnakedN/Aseeds,N/AwhichN/AmeansN/AtheN/AseedsN/AareN/AnotN/AenclosedN/AandN/AprotectedN/AinN/Afruits.N/AMostN/AgymnospermsN/AareN/AevergreenN/AandN/AbearN/AtheirN/AseedsN/AinN/Acones.N/AAN/AconeN/AisN/AaN/AreproductiveN/AstructureN/AcomposedN/AofN/AhardN/Ascales.N/ATheN/AseedsN/AlieN/AopenN/AonN/AtheN/AsurfaceN/AofN/AtheN/Ascales.N/ATheN/AangiospermsN/AproducesN/AseedsN/AthatN/AareN/AenclosedN/AandN/AprotectedN/AinN/Afruits.N/AAngiospermsN/AareN/AcommonlyN/AreferredN/AtoN/AasN/AfloweringN/Aplants.N/AConesN/AserveN/AsomeN/AofN/AtheN/AsameN/AfunctionsN/AforN/AgymnospermsN/AthatN/AflowersN/AserveN/AforN/Aangiosperms.
Discussion
3105.

Question : What are different forms of DNA?

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ANSWER :A-B-C-D and Z-DNA
Discussion
3106.

Question : What are diaspores ?

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SOLUTION :The UNIT of REPRODUCTIVE structures USED in vegetative is called dispore or reproductive propagules.
Discussion
3107.

Question : What are decomposers? Write their function.

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SOLUTION :(a) Decomposers are organisms that BREAK down DEAD or decaying organisms, and in doing so, they carry out the natural PROCESS of decompisition.
(b) DECOMPOSITION and mineralization.
Discussion
3108.

Question : What are deficiency loops ?

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Solution :DELETIONS are observable during meiotic pacphytene stage and polytene chromosome. The unpaired loop formed in the normal chromosomal part at the time of chromosomal PAIRING . Such loops are called as DEFICIENCY loops and it can be SEEN in meiotic PROPHASE.
Discussion
3109.

Question : What are cytochromes?

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SOLUTION :CYTOCHROMES are oxidoreductase enzymes which catalyse INTRACELLULAR oxidations.
Discussion
3110.

Question : What are cursorial and fossorial adaptations?

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Solution :CURSORIAL adaptations are for RUNNING while fossorial adaptations are for DIGGING.
Discussion
3111.

Question : What are cryptic animals ?

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Solution :Cryptic animals are those which camouflage PERFECTLY with their environment and are ALMOST impossible to detect. CERTAIN reptiles and insects such as chameleons and stick insects show this type of adaptation, which helps in prey CAPTURE or to evade from predators.
Discussion
3112.

Question :What are cryptogams ?

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ANSWER :Non-flowering PLANTS
Discussion
3113.

Question : Whatare cry protein ? and organisms?

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SOLUTION :REFER BT cottonof the CHAPTER .
Discussion
3114.

Question : What are Cry proteins? Name an organism that produces them. How has man exploited this protein to this benefit?

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Solution :Cry proteins are encoded by cry genes. These proteins are toxin, insecticidal, crystal proteins. These proteins are produced by Bacillus thuringiensis bacteria. This bacteria contains these proteins in their INACTIVE protoxin form. Bt toxin gene/cry gene has been cloned from bacillus thuringiensis and introduced it into crop plants such as cotton plants to provide resistance ot INSECTS without the need of insecticides. Therefore, man has exploited this protein to DEVELOP certain transgenic crops with insect resistance such as Bt cotton, Bt CORN, etc.
Discussion
3115.

Question : What are cry proteins? Name an organism that produce it. How has man exploited this protein to his benefit ?

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SOLUTION :The TOXIN is CODED by a gene CRY IAc named cry, which is produced by Bacillus thuringiensis.
This gene is isolated from Bt and introduced into crops having better PRODUCTIVITY. So pesticides are not needed. e.g. Bt cotton, Bt com.
Discussion
3116.

Question : What are Cry proteins? Name an organism that produces it. How Has man exploited this protein to his benefit?

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Solution :Cry proteins are CRYSTALLINE prteins PRODUCED by Bacillus thuringiensis. They are also known as Bt toxins. The TOXIN is coded by a gene named cry. There are a numberof them, for exampl, the proteins ENCODED by the GENES cryIAc and cryIIAb control the cotton to develop transgenic Bt-cotton plants.
Discussion
3117.

Question : What are cosmids ?

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Solution :(i) COSMIDS are plasmids containing the ''COS' - cohesive , terminus , the sequence having cohesive ends .
(ii) They are hybrid vectors derived from plasmids having a fragment of lambda PHAGE DNA with its Cos SITE and a bacterial plasmid .
Discussion
3118.

Question : What are coprolites? Mention its role in phylogeny.

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Solution :COPROLITES are the hardened faecal matters occurs as small PIECES. Analysing the coprolites HELPS to understand the NATURE of DIET of pre-historic animals
Discussion
3119.

Question : What are Contraceptives? Explain four different non-surgical contraceptive methods.

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Solution :The devices that are using for avoiding pregnancy are called contraceptives.
1. Natural methods
Natural methods avoid the chances of sperm and OVUM meeting.
Periodic abstinence is one such method in which the couples avoid or abstain (keep away) from coitus from day 10 to 17 of the menstrual cycle when ovulation could be expected. The chances of fertilisation are very high during this period and is called fertile period.
Withdrawal method or coitus interruptus is another method in which the male partner withdraws his penis from the vagina just before ejaculation so as to avoid INSEMINATION.
Lactational amenorrhea (absence of menstruation) method is based on the fact that the cycle does not occur during the period of intense lactation following parturition.
2.Barrier Method
In barrier methods, sperms and ovum are prevented from physically meeting with the help of barrier. Such methods are available for both MALES and females.
Condoms are barriers made of thin rubber/ latexsheaththatareused tocoverthepenisin the male or vagina and cervixin female, just before coitus so that the ejaculated semen would not enter into female reproductive tract. This can prevent conception.
.Nirodh. is a popular brand of condom for male. Use of condom also protecting the users from contracting STDs and AIDS. Both the male and female condoms are disposable, and can be self inserted and thereby gives privacy to the user.
Diaphragms, CERVICAL caps and vaults are also used as barriers made of rubber that is inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus. They prevent conception by blocking the entry of sperms through the cervix. Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are used along with these barriers to increase their contraceptive efficiency.
3.Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)
These devices are inserted by doctors or expert nurses in the uterus through vagina. These Intra Uterine Devices are presently available as the non medicated IUDs (e.g. Lippes loop), copper releasing IUDs (Cut, Cu7, multiload 375) and the hormone releasing IUDs (Progestasert, LNG-20).
IUDs increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus and the Cu ions released suppress sperm motility and the fertilizing capacity of sperms.
The hormone releasing IUDs, in addition make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the cervix hostile to the sperms.
IUDs are ideal contraceptives for the fcmales who WANT to delay pregnancy and space children.
4.Oral Contraception
Oral administration of small doses of either Progestogens or progesterone-estrogen combinations is another contraceptive method used by females. They are used in the form of tablets popularly called pille.
Pills have to be taken daily for a period of 21 days starting preferably within the first five days of menstrual cycle. After a gap of 7 days it has to be repeated in the same pattern till the female desires to prevent conception.
They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent entry of sperms.
Pills are very effective with lesser side effects and are wellaccepted by the females. Saheli., the new oral contraceptive for the females contains a non steroidal preparation. It is a .once a week pill with very few side effectsandhighcontraceptive value.
Explaining any one point under each headings
Discussion
3120.

Question : What are consumers in an ecosystem?

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SOLUTION :ANIMALS.
Discussion
3121.

Question : What are comutagens? Give example.

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Solution :The COMPOUNDS which are not having own mutagenic properties but can enhance the effects of known mutagens are called comutagens. Example: ASCORBIC acid increase the DAMAGE caused by HYDROGEN peroxide.
Discussion
3122.

Question : What are components of domestic sewage and industrial Effluents ?

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Solution :Sewage from our HOMES as well as from hospitals are likely to contain many undesirable pathogenic microorganisms, and its disposal into a water without proper treatment may cause outbreak of serious diseases, such as, dysentery, TYPHOID, jaundice, cholera, etc.
Ulike domestic sewage, waste water from INDUSTRIES like PETROLEUM, paper manufacturing. metal extraction and processing, chemical manufacturing, etc., often contain toxic substances, notably, HEAVY metals (defined as elements with density `gt5 g//cm^(2)` such as mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, etc.) and a variety of organic compounds.
Discussion
3123.

Question : What are columns of Bertini?

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Solution :The part of the cortex continued INSIDE the MEDULLA of kidney between the MEDULLARY PYRAMIDS are called columns of Bertini.
Discussion
3124.

Question : What are codominant alleles? Give one example.

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Solution :When both ALLELES express themselves equally, as coat COLOUR in CATTLE or MN blood groups or AB blood groups in MAN.
Discussion
3125.

Question : What are coacervates? Give their importance in the origin of life.

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Solution : Coacervate is defined as colloidal droplet in which the sispended particles like protein and negative electrical charges aro PRESENT. This phenomenon is called coacevation. They EXHIBITED properties of life like GROWTH and the surface layer of the coacevate had the ability to absorb substances from the MEDIUM.
The protoplasm in the cells is similar to a coacervate.
Discussion
3126.

Question : What are cleistogamous flowers? Write their significance.

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SOLUTION :It is an adaptation in which bisexual flowers do not open at all as a result of which self pollination becomes inevitable. These flowers produce assured seed even in the ABSENCE of pollinators. Anthers and stigma lie close to each other.
Cleistogamous flowers are INVARIABLY autogamous as there is no CHANCE of CROSS pollination
Discussion
3127.

Question : What are chemoautotrophs?

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SOLUTION :Organisms that use CHEMICAL energy for the SYNTHESIS of their FOOD are called chemoautotrophs.
Discussion
3128.

Question : What are chasmogamous flowers?

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SOLUTION :Chasmogamous FLOWERS are OPEN flowers, with EXPOSED stameas and STIGMA.
Discussion
3129.

Question : What are chasmogamous flowers ?Can cross -pollination occur in cleistogamous flowers ? Give reasons for your answer.

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Solution :Chasmogamous FLOWERS are NORMAL type of flowers which are similar to flowers ofother species with exposed anthers and stigma usually found in COMMELINA . Naturally cross -pollination cannot opccur in cleistogamous flowers because they are usually seen below the SOIL surface .
Discussion
3130.

Question : What are CFCs?

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SOLUTION :CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS.
Discussion
3131.

Question : What are carcinogens? Mention any two groups of carcinogens with one example each.

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Solution :TRANSFORMATION of normal cells into cancerous neoplastic cells may be induced by physical, chemical or BIOLOGICAL agents. These agents are called carcinogens.
ex1: lonising radiations like x-rays and gamma rays.
EX2: Non lonising radiations like UV rays
Discussion
3132.

Question : What are cannabinoids from which plant cannabinoids are obtained ? Which part of body is affected by consuming these substances?

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Solution :CANNABINOIDS are group of CHEMICALS which interact with cannabinoid RECEPTORS present PRINCIPALLY in brain. These chemicals are obtained from cannabis sativa sun hemp plant.
These substances affect the HEART and cardiovascularsystem.
Discussion
3133.

Question : What is an endangered species?

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Solution :A species which has been categorized as very LIKELY to BECOME extinct. E.g., BENGAL Polar BEARS.
Discussion
3134.

Question : What are Blue carbon ecosystems?

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Solution :Sea GRASSES and mangroves of Estuarine and COASTAL ecosystems are the most EFFICIENT in carbon SEQUESTRATION. Hence, these ecosystems are called as "BLUE carbon ecosystems"
Discussion
3135.

Question : What are bivalents ? When does this condition is noticed in a cell ?

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Solution :During zygotene stage of prophase I of meiosis I , homologous CHROMOSOMES are aligned SIDE by side resulting in a pair of homologous chromosomes CALLED BIVALENTS.
Discussion
3136.

Question : What are biotic components?

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Solution :Biotic (living) components includes all living ORGANISMS LIKE plants, ANIMALS, fungi and BACTERIA. They form the trophic structures of any ecosystem.
Discussion
3137.

Question : What are biorectors? How are these suitable for production of the desirable products.

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Solution :Bioreacores are vessels in which 100-1000 litres of culture containing raw materials are biologically converted into specific products. The bioreactors provide OPTIMUM growth conditions like temperature, PH, substrate, salts, vitamins, and OXYGEN to obtain MAXIMUM yield of DESIRED products.
Discussion
3138.

Question : What are biopesticides?

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SOLUTION : Biopesticides are biological agents or their products which are USED to control pests, i.e., weeds, insects or pathogens. These act as bioherbicides (DESTROYING weeds) or as bioinsecticides (protect crops from insects or parasitic pathogens). These biological agents INCLUDE some viruses, bacteria, fungi and even protozoans, predatory insects or some smoother crops.
Discussion
3139.

Question : What are Biogeochemical cycles ? Mention two types by giving an example for each.

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Solution :The movement of NUTRIENT elements through various components of an ECOSYSTEM is called nutrient cycling or Biogeochemical CYCLE.
1. Gaseous cycle Ex: CARBON cycle, Nitrogen cycle
2. Sedimentary cycle Ex,- phosphorus cycle, sulphur cycle.
Discussion
3140.

Question : What are biogeochemical cycles? Mention two types by giving an example for each.

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Solution :Cyclic movements of essential CHEMICAL elements between the environment and living ORGANISMS, establishing relationship among living organisms, soil and chemical elements is CALLED biogeochemical cycles. The two TYPES of biogeochemical cycles are:
(a) Gaseous cycle e.g., Carbon cycle (B) Sedimentary cycle e.g., Phosphorus cycle.
Discussion
3141.

Question : What are biofertilizers ? Give two examples.

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Solution :Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil. The MAIN sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, FUNGI and cyanobacteria.
E.g.: (i) Azospirillum, RHIZOBIUM and Azotobacter can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. (ii) BlueGreen Algae, Anabeana, Nostoc and etc are USED as BIOFERTILIZER.
Discussion
3142.

Question : What are biofertilisers? Name a symbiotic fungus which forms mycorrhizae.

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Solution :BIOFERTILISERS are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil. Glomus FORMS MYCORRHIZAE.
Discussion
3143.

Question : What are biocontrol agents? Mention any two groups of biocontrol agents and their hosts.

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Solution :(1) Biocontrol agents : The USE of MICROORGANISMS or biological methods to control plant DISEASES and pests is called biocontrol. The agents that control the microbes are called biocontrol agents.
(2) Biocontrol agents and their hosts.
Discussion
3144.

Question : What are biofertilisers?

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Solution :BIOFERTILISERS are ORGANISMS that ENRICH nutrient quality of the soil.
Discussion
3145.

Question : What are biocontrol agents ?

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Solution :BIOCONTROL refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests. In modern society, these problems have been tackeled increasingly by the use of chemicals - by use of insecticides and pesticides. These chemicals are toxic and extremely harmful to human BEINGS and ANIMALS alike and have been polluting our environment, fruits, VEGETABLES and crop plants. Out soil is also polluted through our use of weedicides to remove weeds.
Discussion
3146.

Question : What are bio-pesticides? Why they are considered better than synthetic pesticides?

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SOLUTION :Bio-pesticides are biologycally based agents used for the control of plant pests. They are in HIGH use due to their non-toxic, cheaper and ECOFRIENDLY CHARACTERISTICS as compared to CHEMICAL or synthetic pesticides.
Discussion
3147.

Question : What are bio-geo chemical cycles? Explain carbon cycle?

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Solution :They are the cyclic movements of essential chemical elements between the environment andliving ORGANISMS, establishing relationship among LIVING organisms, soil and chemical elements. It can also be defined as the specific circulation of INORGANIC matter / gases between the livingand the non-living world.
Carbon cycle: It is the cycling of carbon or carbon dioxide between the environment andliving organisms. It is a type of gaseous cycle and it occurs as carbon dioxide in air and also dissolved in water. It is referred to as the gaseous perfect cycle.
Green plants (producers) fix the carbon of the atmospheric carbon dioxide by photosynthesis and INCORPORATE that it in their food molecules as carbohydrates. Animals (Consumers) obtain the same from plants by feeding on them directly (Herbivorous) or indirectly (Carnivores) and incorporate in their organic substances as carbon skeleton.
It is in the same way, that the dissolved carbon dioxide of water is used by aquatic plants and passed on to aquatic animals through food chains. The carbon of organisms eventually returns to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide by the following events.
1. During respiration in both plants and animals.
2. During bacterial decomposition of dead bodies of plants and animals.
3. Combustion of fossilized plant products such as coal and oil deposits and forest fires.
4. Volcanic EXPLOSIONS.
Discussion
3148.

Question : What are bio-gas chemical cycles? Explain carbon cycle?

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Solution :BIO -GEO CHEMICAL CYCLES / NUTRIENT CYCLINE (INORGANIC - ORGANIC CYCLES) : They are the cyclic movements of essentail chemical ELEMENTS between the enviroment and living organisms , establishing RELATIONSHIP among the living organisms soil, and chemical elements . It can also be defined as the specific circulations of inorganic matter /gases between the living and the non - living world .
CARBON CYCLE :It is thre cycling of carbon dioxide between the envirmonet and living organisms . It is a type of gases cycle and it occurs as carbon dioxide in air and also dissonved in water. It is referred as the gaseous PERFECT cycle .
Green plants (producers ) fix the carbon of the atmoshpheric carbon dioxide by photosynthesis and incorporate it in their food molecules as carbohydrates .Asimah (Consumer) obtain the same from the plants bt feeding on them directly ( Herbivorous) or indirectly (Carnivores ) and incorporated in their organic as carbon skeleton. It is the same way that the dissolved carbon dioxide of water is used by aquatic plants and passed on to aquatic food chains. The carbon of organisms eventuallyreturns to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide by the following events
1 During RESPIRATION plants and animals.
2 During bacterial decomposition of dead bodies of plants and animals .
3 Combustion of fossilized plant products such as coal iol deposits and forest fires .
4 volcanic explosions ,
Discussion
3149.

Question : What are bacteriophages? Describe how are they used as vectors?

Answer»

Solution :1. Bacteriophage : Bacteriophage is a virus which infects the bacteria. They are also known as phage.
2. Use of bacteriophages as vectors :
(1) The commonly used bacteriophages are M 13 and lambda phage. They infect E.coli.
(2) DNA of the lambda phage has cos sites of 12bp at the ends. These are cohesive Tends that allow the DNA to be circularised in the host cell.
(3) For the cloning, DNA of the phage is REPLACED by DNA of desired gene. For this PURPOSE large DNA fragments up to about 20kbp DNA of phage are re:r,noved and replaced by DNA with desired gene. This forms the recombinant DNA.
(4 ) This recombinant DNA is then packed within the viral particles in vitro. Further, they are allowed to infect bacterial cells which have been cultured on agar. (5) The recornbtnant viral DNA starts repltcatton when it enters the bacterial cells.
(6) All the genes NEEDED for multiplication of the viruses and normal lytic cycle are still present in the DNA.
(7) Growth of phages takes place by cycles of cell lysis and the released viruses infect the surrounding bacterial cells. This forms PLAQUES of lysed bacterial cells on a background or lawn of bacterial cells.
(8) Cloned DNA can he recovered from the viruses in these plaques. In this way, phages are used as vectors.
Discussion
3150.

Question : What are baculoviruses ?

Answer»

SOLUTION :BACULOVIRUSES are pathogens that attack INSECTS and other ARTHOPODS.
Discussion