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Function of The Election Commission can be summarized as follows: 

(i) The Election Commission controls over the election machinery to conduct free and fair elections and supervises and makes changes if needed in the electoral rules of the elections. 

(ii) The Election Commission prepares the voters list who enjoy the right to vote as well as considers objections also to be raised by voters in reference to the voter’s list. 

(iii)The Election Commission provides the election symbols to the political parties as well as to independent candidates. As Congress (I) has been assigned the symbol of hand and lotus has been provided to BJP. The independent candidate are provided symbols on temporary basis.  

(iv)The Election Commission declares and recognises the political parties as national or regional.

Parliamentary Form of Government: 

Parliamentary Form of Government is the system of government in which there exists an intimate and harmonious relationship between the executive and the legislative departments, and the stability and efficacy of the executive department depends on the legislature. Although the Parliamentary Government is broadly defined in the above way, in such a system the supremacy of the legislature has now been replaced by the supremacy of the cabinet. Hence, such form of government is also called the Cabinet Government. Functions: In the Parliamentary Form of Government the cabinet has to perform manifold functions. 

It is the Cabinet which: 

(a) formulates well – considered policies of the government after reviewing both the national and international issues. 

(b) takes necessary arrangements for passing laws to implement the policies formulated by it.

(c) determines the matters to be included in the agenda of the central legislature. 

(d) Controls and directs the administrative departments so that laws, Government orders, etc, are to be implemented properly. 

(e) co-ordinates the activities of different departments of the Government. 

(f) prepares the draft budget in consultation with the Prime Minister and takes necessary initiative to get it passed in the legislature. 

(g) formulates economic policies and takes necessary steps for implementing the same. 

(h) advice’s the Constitutional Head to take necessary action during emergency or unforeseen situation, etc

Power and Functions of the Lok Sabha: Following are the important powers and functions of the Lok Sabha: 

(a) Executive Powers: The Indian system of government is parliamentary, which means that the ministers are responsible to the legislature. Hence, they both must have, individually as well as collectively support the confidence of the majority in the Lok Sabha. Otherwise, or the ministers concerned must go. Thus the Lok Sabha makes or unmakes the cabinet. It may reject an important bill supported by the council of ministers or reject a policy supported by it or reject a demand for money asked by the cabinet or pass a vote of no confidence in it. 

(b) Financial Powers: 

(i) The Lok Sabha has the exclusive financial powers. It is custodian or the national purse. All the financial bills are initiated in the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya Sabha. A money bill passed by the Lower House is sent to the Upper House, which must be returned within 14 days with or without amendments. The amendment made by the Rajya Sabha, may be accepted or rejected by the Lok Sabha. 

 (c) Judicial Powers: 

The Lok Sabha shares the power of impeaching the President for violation of the constitution with Rajya Sabha. It also shares with the latter the power of removing the judges of the Supreme Court or the High Courts by an address to the President if supported by majority of the total membership of the house and less than 2/3rd majority of its members present and voting.

(d) Miscellaneous Powers: 

(i) It shares with the Rajya Sabha the power to end the Constitution. 

(ii) It shares with the Rajya Sabha and the State Legislature the right to elect the President. 

(iii)It shares with the Rajya Sabha the right of approval of the proclamation of emergency issued by the President.  

(iv)It has equal power with: the upper house of choosing or dismissing the Vice – President. 

i) Since, we got only one mole AgCl when excess of AgNO₃ is added to 1M solution of the compound. It means only one ionizable chloride ion out side the coordination sphere.

Therefore, the formula of the compound will be -

[Cr(H₂O)₄ Cl₂]Cl 

Tetra aqua dichloro chromium (iii) chloride

[Cr(H₂O)₄ Cl²] Cl + AgNO3 →[Cr(H₂O)₄ Cl₂] NO3 + AgCl\(\downarrow\)

ii) [Cr(H₂O)₄ Cl₂] Cl gives two ions Cl (Chloride ion) and [Cr(H₂O)₄ Cl₂]⁺(Complex ion). In a aqueous solution.

Therefore, the ion ratio of the electrolyte corresponding to the conductivity is 1:1

In case of insulator, there is a large energy gap between the two bands. So, if the temperature rise is high, the electrons will go to the upper band. But since it is not crowded due to less number of electrons, so the conductance will increase due to availability of free electrons in the conduction band. So, the resistance decreases with increase in temperature in insulator.

Infrared radiations 

Applications: 

(i) Taking photograph during fog and smoke etc. 

(ii) for therapeutic purposes

The line joining B to C is perpendicular to electric field, so potential of B = potential of C i.e., V_B  = V_C. 

Distance AB = 4cm

Potential difference between A and C = E x (AB)

= 5 x 10³ x (4 x 10^-2) 

= 200volt 

Intensity of light transmitted through the polaroid = I/2.

(i) No effect on capacitance if foil is electrically neutral. 

(ii) If foil is connected to upper plate with a conducting wire, the effective separation between plates becomes half, so capacitance is doubled

Coherent sources are required for sustained interference. If sources are incoherent, the intensity at a point will go on changing with time.

The magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. 

Mathematically, the induced emf is given by

e = - Δϕ/Δt

Important consideration in the fabrication of LED: 

(a) (i) light emitting diode is a heavily doped p-n junction. 

(ii) The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, typically around 5V. 

(b) The order of band gap of an LED to emit light in the visible range is about 3eV to 1.8eV.

1. Sulphur is more electropositive than fluorine but less electropositive than H, hence only possible compound with hydrogen is H₂S and not SH₆.
2. There is vacant d-orbital is available in P so dπ-pπ bond is possible between phosphorus and oxygen, whereas it is not possible between N and O. So R₃N = O is not likely to form.

 (b)  ironic.

Fresh juice is better than soft drinks.

Calvin cycle proceeds in three stages: Carboxylation, Reduction and Regeneration. It takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts. 

First phase of this cycle is carboxylation: 

(a) Carboxylation is the fixation of CO₂ into a stable organic intermediate. 

(b) Ribulose 1, 5-bisphosphate combines with CO₂, and fixes it to a stable organic intermediate 3C compound called 3-phosphoglycerate (2molecules). 3 PGA is the first stable product of this cycle. 

(c) Reaction is catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO (RuBP Carboxylase-Oxygenase).

(i) Tall 

(ii) 3:1 

(iii) Dwarf

Reason : Being a recessive trait, dwarfness can only be expressed in the absence of dominant trait in its pure form

(i) CH₃–I reacts faster than CH₃–Br as iodine is a better leaving group because of its larger size.
(ii) CH₃–Cl (1° halide) reacts faster than (CH₃ )₃ CCl (3° halide) since in case tertiary butyl chloride three bulky methyl group hinder the approaching nucleophile.

(a) A – C₆H₅NH₂ B – C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻  C – C₆H₅^-N₂ –C₆H₄ -OH

(b) A - C₆H₅CN   B - C₆H₅COOH   C - C₆H₅CONH₂

Equivalent conductivity (Λ): The conductance of that volume of solution containing one equivalent of an electrolyte is known as equivalent conductivity. It is denoted by Λ. 

Let us consider the V cm³ of solution containing one equivalent of an electrolyte. Its conductance is equal to equivalent conductance, Λ. 

Also we know that the conductance shown by 1 cm³ solution containing this electrolyte is called specific conductance, κ.

i.e., the conductance of V cm³ --------- Λ 

the conductance of 1 cm³ --------- κ 

Therefore: Λ = κ.V ---------- equation (3) 

We know that the normality (N) of a solution is given by the equation:

N = n_e/V(in cc) x 1000

For above electrolytic solution, no. of equivalents, n_e = 1. 

Hence

V(in cc) = 1000/N

By substituting the above value in the equation (3), we can now write:

Λ = k 1000/N

Units of Λ: 

= Ohm^-1 cm^-1/ equivalents cm³

= cm² . ohm^-1 . equiv^-1 = cm² . mho. equiv^-1 

or m² . Siemens. equiv^-1

Molar conductivity (Λ_m or μ): The conductance of that volume of solution containing one mole of an electrolyte is known as molar conductivity. It is denoted by Λ_m or μ. 

It is related to specific conductance, κ as:

μ = κ.V 

or

μ = k 1000/M

 Where 

M = molarity of the electrolytic solution. 

Units of μ: 

= cm² . ohm^-1 . mol^-1 = cm² . mho. mol^-1 

or 

m² . Siemens. mol^-1 

The relation between equivalent conductance, Λ and molar conductance, μ can be given by: 

μ = Λ x equivalent factor of the electrolyte

He infers that A is sodium carbonate solution and B is acetic acid. The pH paper turns blue when dipped in solution A, it means A is a strong base having pH 9 and the pH paper turns orange when dipped in solution B, it means B is a strong acid having pH 4.

Kamladevi Chattopadhyay and Pupal Jayakar

Black soil is called regur soil.

It is black in colour and ideal for growing cotton. This type of soil is typical of the Deccan trap (Basalt) region spread over North-West Deccan plateau and is made up of lava flows. 

Characteristics of this soil are as follow: 

(i) It is made up of fine clayey material with a high moisture retention capacity.

(ii) It is rich in soil nutrients like calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime, but poor in phosphoric content

(iii) It develops deep crack during hot weather, helping in proper aeration of the soil. 

(iv) It is found in the plateau areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh as well as in the Godavari and Krishna valleys.

In semi-arid regions of Rajasthan every house had underground tankas to store the water for drinking purposes. These tankas are large and deep tanks which were built inside the main house or the courtyard. They were linked to the sloping roofs of the houses through a pipe. Rainwater falling on the rooftops would run down through the pipe and collect in the underground tankas. The rainwater collected was stored in the underground tankas providing drinking water till the next seasons. When all other sources have dried up, these tankas were beneficial to beat the summer heat as they kept the rooms cool. The rainwater or polar pani, as it was commonly known in these parts, is considered the purest form of natural water.

Problems caused by setting up of Multi-purpose projects and large dams: 

i. Regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow 

ii.Dams fragment rivers 

iii. Difficulty for aquatic fauna to migrate 

iv. Submergence of existing vegetation 

v. Decomposition of soil 

vi. Large scale displacement of local communities

A dam is a barrier across the flowing stream that obstructs, directs or disrupts the flow of the river, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment. A ‘dam’ means a reservoir rather than the structure.  

Dams are classified according to :  

(i) Based on the structure and the materials used, dams are classified as :  

(a) Timber dams. 

(b) Embankment dams. 

(c) Masonry dams.     

(ii) According to height, dams can be categorized as :  

(a) Large dams. 

(b) Major dams. 

(c) Low dams. 

(d) Medium height dams. 

(e) High dams.

Problems caused due to multipurpose projects are:

(i) The dams that were constructed to control floods, have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoirs.  

(ii) Release of water from dams during heavy rains aggravated the flood situation in Maharashtra and Gujarat in 2006.  

(iii) The floods have caused extensive soil erosion.  

(iv) Multipurpose projects induced earthquakes caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution.

Apprenticeship programme.

(i) Dependence on Erratic Monsoon

(ii) Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings

(iii) Low productivity

(iv) Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness

A — (iv) Bihar

B — (iii) Uttar Pradesh 

C — (v) Gujarat 

D — (i) Tamil Nadu 

E — (v) Kerala

Federal form of Government:

(i) Nature: Under the federal system there are two levels of government, one at the central level and other at the state level. Both levels have their areas of jurisdiction.

(ii) In a federal form of government, the central government shares its powers with the various constituent units of the country. For example, in India, power is divided between the government at the Centre and the various State governments.

(iii) Scope and Significance: In most federations, there is dual citizenship one of the country and one of state. 

For example, U.S.A, but this does not exist in India.

Unitary form of Government:

(i) Nature: But in Unitary form of government either there is only one level of government or the sub-units are subordinate to the central government.

(ii) In a unitary form of government, all the power is exercised by only one government. 

For example, in Sri Lanka, the national government has all the powers.

(iii) Scope and significance: Unlike a federal Unitary system has a single citizenship.

Haemophilia 

(i) It is a sex-linked recessive disorder. 

(ii) Patient continues to bleed even on a minor cut as the patient does not possess natural phenomenon of blood clotting. 

(iii) The gene for haemophilia is located on X-chromosome. 

(iv) So more males suffer from haemophilia than females because in males single gene for the defect is able to express. 

(v) The defective alleles produce non-functional protein which later form a non-functional cascade of protein involving in blood clotting. 

(vi) Females suffer from this disease only in homozygous condition, i.e., X^cX^c

Sickle-cell Anaemia 

(i) It is an autosomal linked recessive trait. 

(ii) The disease is controlled by a single pair of allele Hb^A and Hb^s 

(iii) Only the homozygous individuals for Hb^s , i.e., Hb^s Hb^s show the diseased phenotype. 

(iv) The heterozygous individual are carriers (Hb^a Hb^s ). 

(v) Due to point mutation Glutamic acid (Glu) is replaced by Valine (Val) at sixth positions of beta globin chain of haemoglobin molecule. 

(vi) Hb^s behaves as normal haemoglobin except under oxygen stress where erythrocytes lose their circular shape and become sickle-shaped. As a result, the cells cannot pass through narrow capillaries. Blood capillaries are clogged and thus affects blood supply to different organs.

 Both are Mendelian disorders. 

Haemophilia is a sex-linked recessive disorder. The gene for haemophilia is located on X-chromosome. The gene passes from a carrier female to her son. Thalassemia is an autosomal linked recessive disease. It occurs due to either mutation or deletion resulting in reduced rate of synthesis of one of globin chains of haemoglobin.

The difference between Haemophilia and thalassemia is : 

In haemophilia, clotting is affected, i.e. there can be non-stop bleeding even after a minor cut. In Thalassemia, anaemia is the characteristic. 

It was proposed by Sutton and Boveri. 

Similarities: 

(i) Both genes and chromosomes occur in pairs in a diploid cell (2n). 

(ii) Both of them separate out during gametogenesis to enter into different gametes.

Reasons: 

(i) It keeps the prey populations under control. 

(ii) It helps in maintaining species diversity in a community by reducing the intensity of competition among competing prey species. 

(iii) It acts as a conduit for energy transfer across trophic levels. 

(iv) Biological control methods adopted in agricultural pest control are based on the ability of the predator to regulate prey population.

After the entry of the virus into the body of the person, the virus enters into macrophages, where RNA genome of the virus replicates and form viral DNA by the help of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. 

The viral DNA gets incorporated into the host cell’s DNA and directs the infected cells to produce viruses. The macrophages continue to produce virus that enters the helper T-lymphocytes. Thus, the number of helper T-lymphocytes progressively decreases in the body of the infected person.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus.

1. Due to suitable size of interstitial spaces they accomodate smaller atoms and form strong metal-metal bond and that is why transition metals form interstitial compounds.
2. Transition metal shows variable oxidation state and have high charge density on metal ions, hence transition metals and their compounds acts as good catalyst.
3. Mn (atomic no → 25) → [Ar] 3d⁴ 4s²
   In Mn2+ ions, Mn has the electronic configuration → [Ar]3d⁵
   It means there are five impaired electrons, hence it shows maximum paramagnetism.

Iodide ion (due to its larger size it has higher polarizability thus, it is a better nucleophile).

(a)

1. Overdoses of any medicine is harmful and it has its own side effects. Overdose of Aspirin may damage the wall of stomach and may cause ulcer.
2. Concern for mother, scientific attitude and knowledge of chemistry.

1. Ranitidine → Acts as antacid
2. Iproniazid → Antidepressant drug (or Tramquilizer)
3. Tincture iodine → Antiseptic

1. Chloroform will get oxidised to form a deadly poisonous gas, phosgene (COCl₂)
2. Phosgene forms ethyl carbonate with ethanol as a result there is no harmful effect.
3. By treating chloroform with nitric acid.
4. Dignity of individual and scientific attitude.

(a)

1. Bi-H bond is weakest among all 15-group hydrides.
2. H-Te bond is weaker than H-S bond.
3. During reaction of iron and HCl, H₂ gas evolves which prevents the oxidation of FeCl₂ to FeCl₃.
   Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl₂(aq) + H₂(g)

1. Among 15th group elements, Bi is of the largest size and hence Bi-H bond is the longest.
   As a result BiH₃ acts as the strongest reducing agent because of easy formation of H₂.
2. Due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding, H₂O is a liquid whereas H₂S which does not have such bonds exist as a gas.
3. O₃ gets dissociated to give nascent oxygen which is responsible for its strong oxidising action
   O → O + ‘O’

(A) NaCN and KF