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Types of Forests in India: 

(a) Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests: These forests are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22°C. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round. Species found in these forests include rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.

(b) Tropical Deciduous Forests: These are the most widespread forests in India. They are also called the monsoon forests. They spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70- 200 cm. On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous. The Moist deciduous forests are more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between 100-200 cm. Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc. are the main species of these forests. 

(c) Tropical thorn forests: It occur in the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Important species found are babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2 m as the under growth. 

(d) Montane Forests: In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding change in natural vegetation. Mountain forests can be classified into two types, the northern mountain forests and the southern mountain forests. The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which change in with the altitude. Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m. The southern mountain forests include the forests found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. 

(e) Littoral and Swamp Forests: India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation. The total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites — Chilika Lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention).

Difference between land breeze and sea breeze.

Difference between the Himalayan Rivers and Peninsular Rivers.

The Northern Plains: 

The Northern Plains are formed by the alluvial deposits brought by the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These plains extend approximately 3,200 km from the east to the west. The average width of these plains varies between 150- 300 km. The maximum depth of alluvium deposits varies between 1,000-2,000 m. From the north to the south, these can be divided into three major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the alluvial plains. Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at the break-up of the slope. The Tarai has an approximate width is 20-30 km where most of the streams and river re-emerge without having any properly demarcated channel, thereby, creating marshy and swamp.

The alluvial plain These plains have characteristic features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms such as sand bars, meanders, oxbow lakes and braided channels. 

Indian Desert: 

To the northwest of the Aravali hills lies the Great Indian desert. It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans. This region receives low rainfall below 150 mm per year; hence, it has arid climate with low vegetation cover. It is because of these characteristic features that this is also known as Marusthali. The vegetation common in the region are Cacti, Kher, Kikar, Babool, Aclacia, Rhododendrons, etc. During the rainy season some streams appear which disappear in summer. Luni is an important river of the region. 

Some of the well pronounced desert land features present here are mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis. On the basis of the orientation, the desert can be divided into two parts: the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh. Most of the rivers in this region are ephemeral.

The Earth is called a blue planet because: 

(a) Earth is the only planet which has water. 

(b) Three-fourth of the Earth’s surface is covered with water bodies. 

(c) When looked from the space it appears blue due to the presence of the water bodies.

Temperature is defined as the measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with reference to some standard value. 

The temperature of air at any place is influenced by 

(i) the latitude of the place; 

(ii) the altitude of the place; 

(iii) distance from the sea, the airmass circulation; 

(iv) the presence of warm and cold ocean currents; 

(v) local aspects: 

(a) The latitude: The latitude can be explained as an angular distance of a place North or South of the Earth’s Equator or of the Equator of celestial object usually expressed in degrees and minutes. The temperature of a place depends on the insolation received. The insolation varies according to the latitude hence the temperature also varies accordingly. 

(b) The altitude: The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation from below. Therefore, the places near the sea-level record higher temperature than the places situated at higher elevations. In other words, the temperature generally decreases with increasing height. The rate of decrease of temperature with height is termed as the normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m. 

(c) Distance from the sea: Another factor that influences the temperature is the location of a place with respect to the sea. Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly. Land heats up and cools down quickly. Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land. The places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes which moderate the temperature. 

(d) Air-mass: An air mass is a volume of air defined by its temperature and water vapour content. Air masses may cover many hundreds or thousands of square miles and adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them. Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the temperature. The places, which come under the influence of warm airmasses experience higher temperature and the places that come under the influence of cold airmasses experience low temperature. 

(e) Ocean currents: An ocean current is a seasonal directed movement of seawater generated by forces acting upon this mean flow, such as breaking waves, wind, the Coriolis effect, temperature and salinity differences, while tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon. the places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.

Biodiversity is a system in constant evolution, from a view point of species, as well as from view point of an individual organism. 

Importance of bio-diversity are: 

(a) Ecological: Species of many kinds perform some function or the other in an ecosystem. every organism, besides extracting its needs, also contributes something of useful to other organisms. Can you think of the way we, humans contribute to the sustenance of ecosystems. Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, help to cycle water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help regulate the climate. 

(b) Economic: Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are: food crops, livestock, forestry, fish, medicinal resources, etc.

(c) Scientific: Biodiversity is important because each species can give us some clue as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve. Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems of which we are also a species.

The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory. It is also called expanding universe hypothesis. Edwin Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding. As time passes, galaxies move further and further apart. The Universe appears to be growing larger. 

The Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in the development of the universe. 

(a) In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny ball” (singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and infinite density. 

(b) At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is now generally accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the present. The expansion continues even to the present day. As it grew, some energy was converted into matter. There was particularly rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within first three minutes from the Big Bang event, the first atom began to form. 

(c) Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K and gave rise to atomic matter. The universe became transparent. 

(d) The expansion of Universe means increase in space between the galaxies. An alternative to this was Hoyle’s concept of steady state. It considered the universe to be roughly the same at any point of time. 

(e) However, with greater evidence becoming available about the expanding universe, scientific community at present favours argument of expanding universe.

It lacked direction, leadership and a common programme.

(i) Internal recruitment: 

(a) Ms. Mamta is promoted to the post of principal in G.S. Alag Public School, Delhi. Internal sources of recruitment include personnel already on the payroll of the organization. 

(b) Recruitment out of internal sources refers to the recruitment for jobs for within the organization. 

(ii) Informal communication : Communication taking place without following the formal lines of communication is said to be an informal communication. 

(iii) Autocratic leadership: 

(a) Udner this, autocratic leader gives order and expects his subordinates to obey those orders. 

(b) He keeps all the authorities concerned in his control and taken all decisions without consulting the subordinates.

 (i) Planning: They are thinking to manufacture papers. 

 (ii) policy: They also decided not to sell goods on credit. 

(a) Policies are general statements that guide thinking or channelize energies towards a particular direction. 

(b) These are expressed in the form of a general statement. Policies in general are formulated at top management level. 

(iii) Organizational structure: 

(a) Occupational specialization is ensured. 

(b) promotes control and coordination.

i. External Recruitment : He wants an experienced sales manager and accounts manger. For this, he give an advertisement. External source of recruitment include personnel outside the organization. 

ii. (a) Trade test : This test measures the existing skills of the individual. They measure the level of knowledge and proficiency in the area of professions or technical training. 

(b) Interest test : Every individual has fascination for some job rather than the other. Interest tests are used to know the pattern of interests or involvement of a person. 

iii. Employee recognition : Employees’ work should be recognized and appreciated. Recognition means acknowledgement with appreciation. Employees feel motivated if appreciation is given to them. 

iv. Esteem needs/Ego needs: These include factors such as self-respect, autonomy status, recognition and attention. 

 i. Rule: She tells to new teachers what is to be done and what is not to be done in specific situations. 

ii. Delegation. Two points which highlight the importance of this process are: a. Effective management/ Reduces workload of managers: 

• Delegation of authority permits a manager to share his workload with his subordinates. 
• By passing on some of this work to the subordinates, the managers are able to function more efficiently as they get time to concentrate on important matters. 
• Freedom from routine work provides them with opportunities to excel in new areas.

b. Employee development : 

• As a result of delegation, employees get more opportunities to utilize their talent and it may explore their hidden abilities. 
• It allows them to develop those skills which will enable them to perform complex tasks and assume those responsibilities which will improve their career prospects. It makes them better leasers and decision makers. 
• Thus, delegation helps in preparing better future mangers. Delegation empowers the employees by providing them with the chance to use their skills, experience and develop themselves for higher positions.

Efforts made by the Government in the field of health can be summarised as follows: 

(i) The life expectancy of birth in India has more than doubled in the last fifty years. It has reached nearly 62 years. 

(ii) In the plan-period, the mortality rate has declined to nearly 9 per thousand and infant mortality has come down to 70 per thousand live births. Similarly, maternal mortality rate has also declined. 

(iii) Efforts have been made to overcome the nutritional problems in the country and considerable progress has been achieved. 

(iv) Smallpox has been completely eradicated and malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, filariasis, etc. have also been controlled to a large extent.

No, they are different. Economic growth can be defined as a process whereby a countrys real national income increases over a period of time. On the other hand economic development is a process of long-term increase in income as well as with achieving a more equitable income distribution and poverty alleviation. Thus economic development is a wider concept than economic growth.

Economic development however not only concerns itself with increase in income, but with its composition and distribution as well. It covers the process of long-term increase in income, as well as with achieving a more equitable income distribution and poverty alleviation.
Thus, economic development is a wider concept than economic growth.

Economic development = Economic growth + change

Caste can take the following forms in politics:

(i) When parties choose candidates in elections, they keep in mind the caste composition of the electorate and nominate candidates from different castes, so as to muster necessary support to win elections.

(ii) When government are formed, political parties usually take care that representatives of different castes and tribes find a place in it.

(iii) Political parties and candidates make appeals to caste sentiment to muster support. Some political parties are known to favour some castes and are seen as their representatives.

(iv) Universal adult franchise and the principle of one person one vote compelled political leaders to gear up to the task of mobilising and securing political support of different sections of society.

Rat hole mining is a process of digging holes to make narrow tunnels to extract coal. It is a illegal process which is still practiced in some north eastern region.

Rat hole mining can be done in two ways:

1.Side cutting :- The tunnel is dug from a side of a hill and this tunnel give access to the miners to extract coal reserves.

2.Box Cutting :- Narrow tunnel are dug vertically to the ground and through this tunnel many horizontal tunnel are dug at different height which give access to the miners for coal mining.

Water is a very important and critical resource in India because

(i) Water is a pre-condition of life.

(ii) The monsoonal rainfall has added to its critical nature.

(iii) Water is needed not only for domestic consumption but for various human activities like agriculture, industries, power generation, navigation, recreation, etc.

(iv) The growing urbanisation and modern lifestyle had resulted in increased consumption of water.

(v) Water has become very essential for disposal of municipal sewage and other dirts.

Two functions of the codon AUG are: 

(i) It acts as a start codon during protein synthesis. 

(ii) It codes for the amino acid methionine.

The example of shape selective catalyst is ZSM–5.

Example of ionisation isomerism is –

[Pt(NH₃)₄Cl₂]Br₂  and   [Pt(NH₃)₄Br₂]Cl₂

(i) This is due to d-d transition. When visible (white) light falls on a compound, it absorbs certain radiations of white light and transmit the remaining ones. The transmitted light has the complementary colour to that of the absorbed light.
(ii) Because the atoms or simple ions of zinc never have partially filled d orbitals.

(i) Bakelite is used for making combs, electrical switches, handles of various utensils and phonograph records.

(ii) Nylon-6 is used for making tyre cords, ropes and fabrics.

(i) Antacids: Chemical substances which remove excess acid in the stomach and raise the pH to appropriate level, e.g., sodium hydrogencarbonate, a mixture of aluminium and magnesium hydroxide, ranitidine, etc.

(ii) Disinfectants: These are the chemical substances which kill microorganisms or stop their growth but are harmful to human tissues, e.g., phenol (1%), chlorine in concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 pm in aqueous solution, SO₂ , etc

(iii) Enzymes: Enzymes are globular proteins with high molecular mass ranging from 15,000 to 1,000,000 g mol^–1, which form colloidal solution in water. A number of reactions that occur in the body of animals and plants to maintain the life processes are catalyzed by enzymes, therefore enzymes are termed as biochemical catalysts. 

(i) Antacids: These are the chemical substances which neutralize the excess acid and raise the pH to an appropriate level in the stomach. Sodium hydrogen carbonate or a mixture of aluminium and magnesium hydroxide are some common antacids.

(ii) Detergents: Detergents are cleansing agents which have all the properties of soaps, but actually do not contain any soap, e.g., sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate. These can be used both in soft and hard water as they give foam even in hard water. Detergents are mainly classified into three categories:

(a) Anionic detergents
(b) Cationic detergents
(c) Non-ionic detergents

The meaning of lanthanide contraction is Decrease in ionic radius.

The regular contraction (decrease in the size) of the atoms and ions with increasing atomic number is known as lanthanide contraction.

The highest oxydation state of metal exhibited in its oxide or fluoride because Both oxide and fluoride ions are highly electronegative and have a very small size. Due to these properties, they are able to oxidize the metal to its highest oxidation state.

RNA interference

Henry’s law : It states that “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution” and is expressed as

                                           p = K_H x

where, K_H is the Henry’s law constant.

Significance of KH. Higher the value of Henry’s law constant K_H, the lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid.

Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature means some of their physical properties like electrical conductivity, refractive index, etc., are different in different directions.

CH₃ CHCICH₂CH₃ because it forms secondary carbocation which is more stable.

Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature means some of their physical properties like electrical conductivity, refractive index, etc., are different in different directions.

The movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric potential is called electrophoresis.

(i) The electron arrangement is trigonal bipyramidal. The shape is linear because the lone pairs prefer the equatorial positions. The molecule XeF₂ has 3lone-pairs and 2bond-pairs.

(ii) Low bond dissociation enthalpy and high hydration enthalpy of flourine.

Digestion starts in the buccal cavity in the mouth. 

The enzyme secreted in buccal cavity is salivary amylase. 

Salivary amylase enzyme help in the digestion of starch.

Herbarium is a store house of collected plant species that are stored, catalogued and arranged systematically for scientific study.

Collenchyma/parenchyma.

Within the nucleus.

Division of the cytoplasm.

The technique of growing plants in a nutrient solution.

Structural and functional units of lungs or respiratory system.

Plasma without the clotting factors.

Significance of mitosis :

(i) Mode of reproduction in lower organisms, lower plants and haploid cells of some insects.

(ii) Helps in cell repair.

(iii) Mitosis in meristematic tissue and lateral cambium helps in continuous growth of plants throughout their life.

(i) Amoeboid protozoans: E.g. Amoeba, Entamoeba

(ii) Flagellated protozoans: E.g. Trypanosoma

(iii) Ciliated protozoans: E.g. Paramecium

(iv) Sporozoans: E.g. Plasmodium