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A constant is a name or an identifier whose value is fixed and cannot change during the execution of the program.

define('MAX',10);

(i) 2

(ii) product activated

(iii) Sep-11-2017

Document Object Model (DOM) – The road map through which you can locate any element in an HTML document and use a scripting language, such as JavaScript, to change the element’s properties.

switch($Type)

{

case 'T': echo "DISCOUNT ON TV";

break;

case 'M' : echo "DISCOUNT ON MOBILE PHONE";

break;

case 'C' : echo "DISCOUNT ON CAMERAS";

break;

default : echo "NO DISCOUNT";

}

$_REQUEST is a super global variable which is used to collect data after submitting an HTML form.

i. Right to work and earn equal wages.

ii. Equal access to health

iii. Equal access to education

iv. Equality in social and political rights.

formal equality of opportunity means every individual should be provided equal opportunity for achieving higher position and posts. Higher post should be given to deceiving candidates on the basis of merit fair competition.

• It is encouraged by the geographical concentration of identity markers such as languages, culture, religion in a particular region. 
• It is fuelled by a sense of regional deprivation. 

• Women earn lower wages than men for similar work. 
• Women were hardly visible in official statistics as earners and workers. 
• Prevailing patrilineal kinship systems and other cultural practices excludes women from land ownership. 

1. Areas that underwent technological transformation became more developed while others stagnated.
2. Green revolution was promoted more in western and southern parts of the country than in the eastern parts of the country

Trafficking is a kind of migration meaning to recruitment of children and women within and across the national boundaries for work, marriage or services by means of violence, threat of violence.

Social inequalities arise due to differences in gender, age, class, geographical location, citizenship.

constitutional remedies are the main governing law for any nation. These remedies are provided by the constitution itself. Statutory remedies are the remedies provided by parliament or other legislative enactments.

The Assimilationist and Integrationist policies of nation building :

Policy of Assimilation: Outright suppression of the ethnic religious or linguistic groups.try to erode cultural differences between the groups. 

Policy of Integration: seek to assert a single national identity by attempting to eliminate ethno national and cultural differences from public and political arena while allowing them in private domain. 

• Centralising all policies to forums where dominant group constitutes the majority and eliminating the autonomy of local or minority groups.  
• Imposing a unified legal and judicial system based on the dominant groups traditions and abolishing alternative systems used by other groups. 
• Adopting the dominant groups language and culture through national institution including state controlled media. 
• Adoption state symbols celebrating the dominant groups history, heroes and culture.

The hypocrisy of colonial administration in the context of Tea plantations they made in India :

Harsh measures were taken against the labourers to make sure they benefited the planters. 

They were also fully aware that the laws of a colonized country did not have to stick to the democratic norms that the British back home had to follow in Britain. 

The labour system in Assam was essentially that of indenture by which the labourers went to Assam under contract for a number of years. 

The government helped the planters by providing for penal sanction in case of non-fulfillment of the contractby the labourers.

'Equal status' and 'equal opportunity' helps the society to restore back the dignity snd freedom of the deprived sections of the society. It creates a sense of equality among the rather not too effective . People try to change their mindsets about the concept of upper and lower caste. Use of the words 'Equal status' and 'equal opportunity' can serve a lot in restoring the freedom and dignity of the people

The rise of parties is directly linked to the emergence of representative democracies because:

(i) When societies develop and expand, they become more complex in terms of social, economic and political relations. Hence, they need representatives from parties to sustain governance. 

(ii) Political parties tend to provide the base on which the praxis of representative government is built. 

(iii) They gather public views on various important issues, articulate them and then present them to the government. 

(iv) Existence of political parties in a representative democracy ensures that country runs as per its policies and ideologies and has a responsible accountable government which is answerable to the people. 

(v) Not having parties will lead to chaos and turmoil in the society.

The Bombay Textile strike of 1982 was led by the trade union leader, Dr. Datta Samant, and affected nearly a quarter of a million workers and their families. The strike lasted nearly two years. The workers wanted better wages and also wanted the right to form their own union. According to the Bombay Industrial Relations Act (BIRA), a union had to be ‘approved’ and the only way it could be ‘approved’ was if it gave up the idea of strikes. The Congress-led Rashtriya Mill Mazdoor Sangh (RMMS) was the only approved union and it helped to break the strike by bringing in other workers and with the use of violence. The Government also refused to listen to the worker’s demands. Women too faced lot of problems. Slowly, people started going back to work because they were desperate. Many workers lost their jobs, and went back to their villages or took up casual labour, others moved to smaller towns like Bhiwandi, Malegaon and Icchalkaranji, to work in the powerloom sector. Mill owners did not invest in machinery and modernisation. Today, they are trying to sell off the mill land to real estate dealers to build luxury apartment. 

Marx understood capitalism as a system of commodity production, or production for the market, through the use of wage labour. Marx wrote that all economic systems are also social systems. Each mode of production consists of particular relations of production, which in turn give rise to a specific class structure. He emphasised that the economy does not consist of things (goods circulating in the market), but is made up of relations between people who are connected to one another through the process of production. Under the capitalist mode of production, labour itself becomes a commodity, because workers must sell their labour power in the market to earn a wage. This gives rise to two basic classes – capitalists, who own the means of production (such as the factories), and workers, who sell their labour to the capitalists. The capitalist class is able to profit from this system by paying the workers less than the value of what they actually produce, and so extracting surplus value from their labour. Thus profit is earned by exploiting the labour. 

The economic activities of the Nakarattars represented a kind of indigenous capitalism. In this form of capitalism, the structures of caste, kinship, and family were oriented towards commercial activity, and business activity was carried out within these social structures. As in most ‘traditional’ merchant communities, Nakarattar banks were basically joint family firms, so that the structure of the business firm was the same as that of the family. Similarly, trading and banking activities were organised through caste and kinship relationships. For instance, their extensive caste-based social networks allowed Chettiar merchants to expand their activities into Southeast Asia and Ceylon. Businessmen are more likely to trust others of their own community or kin group; they tend to do business within such networks rather than with others outside. Thus, these traditional business communities earn profits without exploiting labour or creating unequal class structures. 

The 1990s witnessed the emergence of powerful parties and movements that represented the Dalit and backward castes (Other Backward Classes or OBC). Many of these parties represented powerful regional assertion as well. These parties played a major role in the United Front government that came to power in 1996. The United Front was similar to the National Front which included Janata Dal and several regional parties. This time the BJP did not support the government. The United Front government was supported by the Congress. In 1996, the Left continued to support the non-Congress government. This time the Congress, supported it, as both the Congress and the Left wanted to keep the BJP out of power.

But they did not succeed for long, as the BJP continued to consolidate its position in the elections of 1991 and 1996. It emerged as the largest party in 1996 elections and was invited to form the government. Then most other parties were opposed to its political and therefore, the BJP government could not secure a majority in the Lok Sabha. But finally it came to power by leading a coalition government from May 1998 to June 1999. Atal Bihari Vajpayee was the Prime Minister during both these NDA governments and his government completed its full term.

The two types of social movements. 

They can be classified as: 

(i) redemptive or transformatory; 

(ii) reformist; and 

(iii) revolutionary. 

A redemptive social movement aims to bring about a change in the personal consciousness and actions of its individual members. 

Reformist social movements strive to change the existing social and political arrangements through gradual, incremental steps. 

Revolutionary social movements attempt to radically transform social relations, often by capturing state power.

Dalit movements belong to all types of social movements 

• It was revolutionary in terms of society and redemptive in terms of individuals. 
• The ‘post Ambedkar Dalit movement’ has had revolutionary practice. It has provided alternative ways of living, at some points limited and at some points radical and all-encompassing, ranging from  changes in behaviour such as giving up eating beaf to religious conversion. 
• It has focused on changes in the entire society, from radical revolutionary goal of abolishing caste oppression and economic exploitation to the limited goals of providing scope for members of Scheduled Caste to achieve social mobility. 

On the whole, this movement has been a reformist movement. It has mobilized along caste lines; it has attempted and achieved societal changes with gains especially for the educated sections among Dalits.

There has been a phenomenal expansion of mass communication in recent years. As students of sociology, there are a few aspects to this growth which is of great interest to us. 

1. While we recognise the specificity of the current communication revolution, it is important to go back a little and sketch out the growth of modern mass media in the world and in India. This helps us realise that like any other social institution the structure and content of mass media is shaped by changes in the economic, political and socio-cultural contexts. For instance, we see how central the state and its vision of development influenced the media in the first decades after independence. And how in the post 1990 period of globalisation the market has a key role to play. 

2. It helps us better appreciate how the relationship between mass-media and communication with society is dialectical. Both influence each other. The nature and role of mass media is influences by the society in which it is located. 

3. Mass communication is different from other means of communication as it requires a formal structural organisation to meet large-scale capital, production and management demands. Thus, the state and/or the market have a major role in the structure and functioning of mass-media. Mass media functions through very large organisations with major investments and large body of employees. 

4. There are sharp differences between how easily different sections of people cal use mass media. 

In the 19th century social reformers often wrote and debated in newspapers and journals. The growth of Indian nationalism was closely linked to its struggle against colonialism. It emerged in the wake of the institutional changes brought about by British rule in India. Anti colonial public opinion was nurtured and channelized by the nationalist press, which was vocal in its opposition to the oppressive measures of the colonial state. 

Under British rule newspapers and magazines, films and radio comprised the range of mass media. Radio was wholly owned by the state. National views could not be, therefore, expressed. Newspapers and films though autonomous from the state were strictly monitored by the Raj. Newspapers and magazines either in English or vernacular were not very widely circulated as the literate public was limited. Yet their influence far out stripped their circulation as news and information was read and spread by word of mouth from commercial and administrative hubs like markets and trading centres as well as courts and towns. The print media carried a range of opinion, which expressed their ideas of a ‘free India’.

Role government can play in making the globalisation a success :

(i)  Protect the interests Government should prepare such policies that must protect the interests, not only of the rich and the powerful but of all the people in the country.

(ii)  Labour laws Government can ensure that labour laws are properly implemented and the workers get their rights.

(iii)  Reserve items Government can reserve some items exclusively for small scale and local producers. 

(iv)  Investment barriers If necessary, the government can use trade and investment barriers like quota system, imports, duties etc.

(v)  Negotiation It can negotiate with the WTO for fairer rules.

(vi)  Developing relationship It can align with other developing countries with similar interests to fight against the domination of developed countries in the WTO.

The Right to Information Act, 2005 ensures citizens information about the working of the government departments, so that they can get social justice.

In the case of consumers, the right to be informed means that the consumers have the right to be informed about the particulars of goods and services that they purchase, like MRP, date of manufacture, expiry date, etc.

Consumers can then complain and ask for compensation or replacement if the product is defective in any manner.

Density of population =  Population/Area Availability of water

1.  People live in areas where fresh water is easily

available 

2. So river valleys are densely populated 

3. Ex.-Gangetic plains

Landforms 

 1.  People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes as it is favourable for agriculture and industrial development 

2.  Mountainous and hilly areas hinder the development oftransport and so are less populated 

 3.  Ex.- Ganga plains are densely populated Himalayas are scarcely populated.

Climate

1.  Extreme climate are uncomfortable of human habitation 

 2.  Areas with comfortable climate attract more people 

 3.  Areas with very heavy rainfall have low population 4. Ex. Mediterranean regions are populated due to pleasantclimate

Soils 

 1.  Areas with fertile soil are densely populated 

  2.  Ex. Gangetic plains

(a) Gujarat 

(b) The over-use of ground water resources has led to decline in ground water table in these states. In fact, over withdrawals in some states like Rajasthan, and Maharashtra has increased fluoride concentration in groundwater, and this practice has led to increase in concentration of arsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar.

Importance of ports: 

1. The chief gateways of the world of international trade are the harbours and ports.

2. Cargoes and travellers pass from one part of the world to another through these ports.

3. The ports provide facilities of docking, loading, unloading and the storage facilities for cargo.

Classification of ports on the basis of their location

1. Inland ports

2. Out ports Explain each elaborately

Problems faced by Indian railways are : 

(i) It lacks repair and maintenance of tracks and bridges. 

(ii) India as the railways operation is on their gauges and shift from gauge to another is a problem. 

(iii) Rail traffic has increased and the old tracks are not able to carry the increased load and accidents are frequent.

• The first half of the nineteenth century saw an enormous increase in population all over europe.
• Population from rural areas migrated to the cities to live in overcrowded slums.
• Small producers in towns were often faced with stiff competition from imports of cheap machine-made goods from England.
• The rise of food prices or a year of bad harvest led to widespread pauperism in town and country.

(i) Urbanisation refers to development of villages and rural areas into towns with high standard of living and civic amenities. 

(ii) The level of urbanisation is measured in terms of percentage of urban population to the total population. The level of urbanisation in India in 2001 was 28 per cent which is quite low in comparison to developed countries. 

(iii) Total urban population has increased eleven fold during 20th century. Enlargement of urban centres and emergence of new towns have played a significance role in the growth of urban population and urbanisation in the country. 

(iv) After independence large number of towns have been developed as administrative head-quarters. Some old towns also developed as satellite towns around metropolitan cities such as Ghaziabad, Gurugram, around Delhi. A large number of medium and small-towns have developed all over the country. 

(v) According to census of India, urban centres are classified into six classes—class 1 town, metropolitan cities, mega cities etc. Majority of metropolitan cities and mega cities are urban agglomerations. In the evidence of data, more than 60 per cent of urban population in India lives in class I towns. Out of 423 cities, 35 cities/urban agglomeration are metropolitan cities. Six of them are mega cities, 21% of urban population lives in these mega cities. Greater Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bengaluru and Hyderabad are the mega cities.

Sri Lanka became independent in 1948. It immediately adopted measures to impose Sinhala supremacy. 

(i) The Tamils felt alienated. No respect or recognition was given to their language, culture and religion. 

(ii) They began a struggle for equality in jobs, entry to the university, recognition of their language and culture. 

(iii) Slowly the conflict changed into a demand for regional autonomy. 

Majoritarianism is a philosophy which asserts that the majority community should be able to rule a country in whichever way it wants, by disregarding the wishes and needs of the minority. It means submission of the minority group to the majority group for all the decisions affecting their lives. 

A series of majoritarian measures were adopted by the democratically elected government in Sri Lanka after its independence in 1948. It adopted majoritarianism to establish Sinhala supremacy. In 1956, an Act was passed to recognise Sinhala as the only official language, thus disregarding Tamil. The governments followed preferential policies that favoured Sinhala applicants for university positions and government jobs. A new Constitution advocated that the state shall protect and promote Buddhism. All these measures taken by the government gradually increased the feeling of alienation among Sri Lankan Tamils.

Economic Consequences: 

(a) A major benefit for the source region is the remittance sent by migrants. Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major sources of foreign exchange. 

(b) In 2002, India received US$ 11 billion as remittances from international migrants. 

(c) Punjab, Kerala and Tamil Nadu receive very significant amount from their international migrants. 

(d) The amount of remittances sent by the internal migrants is very meagre in comparison to international migrants. But it plays an important role in the growth of economy of the source area. Remittances are mainly used for food, repayment of debts, medical treatment, marriages, children’s education, agricultural inputs, construction of houses, etc. 

(e) For thousands of the poor villages of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, etc. remittance works as life blood for their economy. 

(f) Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha to the rural areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution strategy for agricultural development.

AgCl shows Frenkel defect due to large difference in size between the positive (Ag⁺ ) and negative (Cl⁻ ) ion.

The increasing order of boiling point is C₂H₅OH > C₂H₅NH₂> (CH₃)₃N. N−H···N hydrogen bond is weaker than an O−H···O hydrogen bond, because the difference in electronegativity between nitrogen and hydrogen (3.0–2.1 = 0.9) is less than that between oxygen and hydrogen (3.5–2.1 = 1.4).

Most of the Princely States willingly wanted to join Indian Union. 

• The government wanted to accommodate plurality by adopting flexible approach in dealing with the demand of the region. 

• The Central Government was so much concerned towards integration and consolidation , of territorial boundaries of Indian nation.

The major attributes in making the Human Development Report are:

(i) Per Capita Income (PCI): A nation with high PCI will have a population with high nutritional levels, have healthy people, as healthcare facilities will be good and have more educated people, as they will be able to afford better education.

(ii) Educational levels of the people: They will be able to get better jobs and higher earnings due to their higher education status.

(iii) Health status: Health will be good and longevity will increase as they will be able to afford better healthcare facilities. Infant mortality will also reduce due to better healthcare, resulting in further increase in life expectancy at birth.

A worldwide economic crisis occurred in 1929 in many countries and lasted till 1934.

It started in USA and engulfed many countries of the world except Russia. 

(i) The American industry had got a great boost during the First World War of 1914-1918.They continued producing different articles even after the war, which created a glut in the market. As a result, exports fell and the home market could not absorb all the products.It led to catastrophic decline in production, employment, incomes and trade. There was unemployment as factories were closed, workers laid off, production went down by half.

(ii) The greatest sufferer was the agricultural region. During the war, America had become the greatest supplier of wheat along with Canada and Australia. But after the war the Eastern European countries revived their wheat production. There was a slump as in industries,prices fell steeply. Farm produce rotted due to lack of buyers.

The council of ministers are collectively responsible to the Parliament. It means that when the cabinet or council of ministers have reached a decision, all the ministers must defend it inside the Parliament.
If any law or policy is rejected by the Lok Sabha or decision or budget proposal made by the ministry, it is taken to be a no confidence against the entire council of ministers. The passing of no confidence leads to the resignation of the entire council of ministers.

Apart from this, if the no confidence is passed against the Prime Minister, then also it leads to the removal of the entire council of ministers. The reason behind this is the Prime Minister is the leader of the council of minister. Hence, the collective responsibility has its own importance.

• The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet east of Mansarovar Lake, very close to the sources of the Indus and the Satluj.
• It is slightly longer than the Indus and most of its course lies outside India.
• In Tibet, the river carries a smaller volume of water and less silt as it is a cold and a dry area.
• In India, it passes through a region of high rainfall. Here the river carries a large volume of water and considerable amount of silt.
• The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands.
• Every year during the rainy season, the river overflows its banks causing widespread devastation due to floods in Assam and Bangladesh.
• Unlike other north Indian rivers, the Brahmaputra is marked by huge deposits of silt on its bed causing the river bed to rise. The river also shifts its channel frequently.

Access of books created a new culture of reading habits. The following examples state the same:

(i) Earlier reading was restricted to the aristocrat class only. Common people heard sacred texts read out, ballads recited and folk tales narrated. Now books reached a large section of people, so ‘reading public’ increased instead of‘hearing public’.

(ii) Printers began publishing popular ballads and folk tales with beautiful illustrations. These could be sung or recited at gatherings.

(iii) With the expansion of printing technology, the line between oral and reading cultures became blurred, thus the hearing public and reading public became intermingled.

Return on Equity = Net profit after tax x 100/  Equity 

= 2,00,000/1,00,000 x 100 

= 200 %

Uses of problem Identification: 

1. It helps an entrepreneur to bring out new products in the market 

2. Understand the problems and needs of the market 

3. Helps the entrepreneur to be creative 

4. Increase in employment generation 

5. Increase in national income of the country

(i) While viewing the collinearity of pins and images, the eye should be kept at a distance from the pins so that all of them can be seen simultaneously. The collinearity of pins fixed on one side of the glass prism and the images of pins on the other side could also be confirmed by moving the head slight to either side while viewing them. All the pins and images of pins would appear to move together if they are collinear. 

(ii) The pins P₁, P₂, P₃ and P₄ fixed on the paper may not be exactly perpendicular (or vertical) to the plane of paper. It is therefore desirable to look at the feet of the pins or their images while establishing their collinearity. That is why the position of each pin is marked with pointed tip of the pins on the paper.

The possible anomaly is the formation of air bubbles. Coverslip should be placed over the peel gently with the help of a needle.

(i) Ethanol 

(ii) Ethanal

(i) Food Preservatives: These are the chemical substances which are added to the food materials to prevent their spoilage due to microbial growth and to retain their nutritive value for long time. Sodium benzoate, sodium metabisulphite are some common preservatives. Preservatives prevent rancidity and kill or inhibit the growth of microorganism.

(ii) Synthetic Detergents: Detergents are cleansing agents which have all the properties of soaps, but actually do not contain any soap e.g., sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate. These can be used both in soft and hard water as they give foam even in hard water. Detergents are mainly classified into three categories:

(i) Anionic detergents
(ii) Cationic detergents
(iii) Non-ionic detergents

(iii) Antacids: These are the chemical substances which neutralize the excess acid and raise the pH to an appropriate level in the stomach. Sodium hydrogen carbonate or a mixture of aluminium and magnesium hydroxide are some common antacids.

(i) Name of monomer                       Structure

Ethene                                                 CH₂ = CH₂   

Vinyl chloride                                      CH₂ = CH–Cl   

Tetrafluoroethene                               F₂C = CF₂

The process of addition of an appropriate amount of suitable impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor to enhance its conductivity is called doping.