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Main objectives of U.N.O. :

1. To maintain inter-national peace and safety.

2. To promote the feeling of friendship among member nations.

3. To solve economic, social, cultural and humanity related problems at international level.

4. To seek co-operation to create a feeling of respect for human rights and the fundamental right to freedom.

What are the main organs of the United Nations are :

1. Secretariat

2. General Assembly

3. Security Council

4. International Court of Justice

5. Trusteeship Council and

6. Economic and Social Council.

The United Nations General Assembly is a platform to discuss global problems because:

• Every year the General Assembly meets in its session from September to December. 
• During the session, the General Assembly discusses important issues like environment, disarmament, etc 
• The decisions in the General Assembly are taken by the majority. These decisions are in the form of resolutions. 
• The significance of the General Assembly lies in being a platform for representatives of member nations to come together and discuss and make policy decisions on issues of global importance.

Globalization has its own characteristics. The chief characteristics are:

1. Increasing international trade at fast growth. 

2. Increasing the international flow of capital including foreign investment. 

3. Creating international agreements leading to organizations like WTO and OPEC. 

4. Developing global financial system. 

5. Increasing the role of international organizations such as WTO, WIPO, IMF etc. that deal with international transactions. 

6. Creating an international cultural exchange. 

7. Creating international travel and tourism. 

8. Spreading of local foods such as Pizza and Indian food to other countries. 

9. Developing global telecommunicational infrastructure and greater transfer-border data flow etc.

Some patent goods of China are found in houses of some prominent business houses of America.

Recently globalization has achieved great progress in the economic growth in developing countries. The great achievements in technology, communication and internet communica¬tion systems have made a large business unit as global units. The economic activities of these large business units are not confined only to the places where they are established but spread all over the world. It is the increasing crossborder movement of goods and services. It is the worldwide phenomenon of technical, economic, political and cultural exchanges. Globalization opens cross-border links in international trade and finance.It increases the international flow of capital including foreign investments etc.

• Industrial locations are complex in nature. 
• These are influenced by raw material labour, capital, power, and market, etc. 
• It is rarely possible to find all these factors available at one place. 
• So industries are located where these factors even can be arranged at lower cost.

The industries which are based on agricultural products are called ‘agrobased industries’.

Correct answer is (b) .gov.

Mayor is the head of the municipal corporation.

Man is a social animal. He wants to live in the society. An organised group of people living in fixed area under an organised government without any other control is called a state. State is very useful. It executes the laws in a society. Its existence is for a better life of people and it has the right of obedience from people.

State is a political abstraction, and it controls the social system. State is such an organization where people are bound in unity. State makes laws through government and executes them. It punishes those who disobey the law. It executes its will through the government and establishes peace.

Sovereignty is of two types: 

• Internal sovereignty 
• External Sovereignty.

State is the central topic of Political Science, but it is used in many contexts. English word ‘State’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Status’, which is means social status of any individual. But gradually, its meaning changed and it became the social status of the entire society. Different scholars have given different definitions of the state. 

Some definitions are as follows:

1. Aristotle:

 “State is union of families and villages having for its objective a perfect and self – sufficient life by which we mean a happy and honorable life.” 

2. Cicero: 

“State is a majority community that is connected to each other through feeling of same rights and to get profit.” 

3. Bluntscelli: 

“The state is a politically organised people of a definite territory.” 

4. Burgess: 

“The state is a particular portion of mankind viewed as on organised unit.” 

5. Laski: 

“State is an organised society that is divided between rulers and ruled and has supremacy on the other organizations coming under its limits.” 

6. Woodrow Wilson: 

“The state is a people organised for law within a definite territory.” 

7. Garner: 

“The state as a concept of Political Science and public law is a community of persons, more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, independent or nearly so of external control and possessing an organised government to which greater body of inhabitants render habitual obedience.” 

8. Oppenheimer:

“When the persons living in a country live under the control of their sovereign government then there a state is established.” 

9. Bodin: 

“The state is an association of families and their common possession governed by supreme power and by reason.” 

10. Willoughby: 

“State is that society of people which has such a power that has full control on persons and groups within its limits but itself is free of all controls.” 

Different Elements of State: 

There are four elements of state: 

• Population 
• Fixed Territory 
• Government 
• Sovereignty. 

1. Population: 

State is such a community wherein many people are bound in unity, so population is a main element of state. State cannot be formed without population. Uninhabited land cannot be called a state. This is not fixed that how much population is necessary for a state. 

2. Fixed Territory: 

Second important element of state is Fixed Territory. State must have some fixed area but there cannot be limit or unanimity regarding the area of state. Organized states of the world are quite different from each other in area like Russia, U.S.A., China, India, etc. have a large area, whereas Vatican City, San Marino and Morocco, etc. have an area of only some square kilometers. 

3. Government: 

Government is the third important element of state. Government can be defined as such an instrument which is used to execute and express the will of government. Government is made by – whether central or local – the combination of legislature, executive and judiciary. 

4. Sovereignty: 

This is the soul of the state. State cannot be formed without it. Sovereignty means – supreme power of state. Sovereignty distinguishes state from other organisations. State can exist only when it has sovereignty. If a state loses its sovereignty because of internal struggle or external attack, it loses its existence.

Matriarchal theory of origin of state has been criticized on following basis : 

1. This theory speculates only about the beginning of society, especially families. This can not be assumed reliable for the origin of state. 

2. It is very difficult to say that only matriarchal families were in prevalence in the beginning of human society. This is also possible that somewhere matriarchal and somewhere patriarchal families were there. 

3. This theory explains the development of state in very simple and easy terms, which actually is not that simple. This theory ignores the other elements responsible for the origin and development of state. 

4. This theory explains only the development of society rather than the development of state. In this view, this theory is more social than political.

According to Laski, “State is an organised society that is divided between ruler and ruled and has supremacy on the other organizations coming under its limits.”

• State is a political system, whereas society is a social system. 
• State is related to political aspect, whereas society is related to moral aspect.

The supreme power of a country which makes law there, is called legal sovereignty.

Political sovereign means voters and all other influences within the state that form and affect public opinion.

Divine Origin of State : 

This is the oldest theory of origin of state. This comes under speculative theories. This is basically founded on religion or religious feeling. According to this theory, state has been created by God. God itself rules a state or sends any representative for this work who rules on his behalf. He is accountable to God, not to the general public. 

Explanation of Divine Theory:

 Divine nature of state was propounded in western political thinking. The first supporters of this theory were the Jews. Jewish scriptures considered the king nominated by God. Only God can dethrone or kill the king. Jewish scholars considered state as a natural and divine organisation.

Ancient Indian thinkers considered that state was created by God. This theory was propounded in Hindu scriptures and Manusmriti also. According to Manusmriti, King is creation of God. Mention of divine origin of state can also be found in ‘Shanti Parva’ of ‘Mahabharata’.

Basic elements of Divine Theory: 

Basic elements of this theory are as under: 

1. State is an organisation created by God. “God has created it for betterment”of people. 

2. King is representative of God. He is accountable and responsible only to God. 

3. It is the religious duty of the public to obey the king. To oppose the king means to oppose God. 

4. Public has no right to oppose an tyrant. God himself will punish him for his wrong deeds. 

5. King is not under any law. He is law-maker. 

6. Order of the king is law and his actions are always just and kind. 

7. No power on earth can restrict the will and power of king. 

8. Royal power is inherited. King’s son is his heir after his death. 

9. To express resentment to the power of government and to condemn his acts as unjust, is a sin.

Criticism of Divine Theory: 

Divine Theory of origin of state has been criticized on following grounds: 

1. Unscientific Theory: 

Assumptions of divine theory can be accepted only on the religious beliefs, not on logical basis.

2. Against democratic values: 

This theory is against democracy and supports autocratic monarchy. Many kings had taken support of this theory to increase their powers and to exploit the general public. 

3. Religious Theory: 

In today’s time, when many people have no belief in God and religion, this theory has no importance for them. 

4. Conservative Theory: 

This theory is conservative. No public welfare can be done in this theory because opposing the king has been considered as a crime against God and a sin. 

5. Not applicable on Modern states: 

This Theory is not applicable to modern states because most of them do not have monarchy. In democratic countries, President is not appointed by God, rather he is elected by the people or their representatives. 

Importance of Divine Theory: 

This theory does not explain the origin of state correctly, still, it has its own importance. This theory had helped establish peace and harmony in the earlier chaotic society. This theory explained the importance of religion in the evolution of state and developed the feelings of obedience and discipline in the minds of people.

This theory was the first attempt to chronologically explain the origin of state on which many theories were based later on. This theory is considered the starting of the history of the origin of state. Though, presently this theory does not explain the origin of state correctly, but initially, it had given much contribution to establish peace and harmony.

Elements helpful in origin and development of state are as under: 

1. Population: 

Population is a very important element for the origin and development of any state. State cannot exist without population. It cannot be fixed how much population is necessary for state. But if the population is in accordance to the resources available in the state, the situation remains good, otherwise many problems begin to arise.

2. Fixed Territory of Lend: 

Second important element for origin and development of state is area of land. How much area is necessary for a state cannot be defined. Area can be less or more. If a state has more area, it proves useful for it. 

3. Government: 

Government is the third important element of state. State expresses its will through government. Government executes the will of the state. It maintains organizations and peace. Government performs its duties through its three organs – Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. Governance of state is done through the executive. It executes the laws. Legislature makes the laws and the judiciary interprets them. Government makes the people, living in the jurisdiction of the state, obey the laws. It punishes those who disobey the laws. There is no fixed rule about the form of a government in the state. Some countries of the world have parliamentary government and some have presidential government.

4. Sovereignty: 

It means supreme power of the state. This is the soul of the state. 

It is of two types – 

• External 
• Internal.

External sovereignty means that state is not under control of any external power. Internal sovereignty means that state has the supreme power over all the persons and organizations coming under its jurisdiction. No other state can be given the right of having control on individuals and organizations of the other state.

There is one more important element besides these four elements. This is feeling of obedience among people. According to political thinker Willoughby, “Even if having all the above-said four elements, if the people do not have the feeling of obedience, then that state cannot save its existence for a long time.”

De – jure sovereign is the one who can enforce supreme orders legally. According to law, he has the right to administration and he can give orders to the people and can get his orders obeyed.

Differences between state and society are as under: 

1. Difference related to system: 

State is a political system, whereas society is a social system. State is that instrument of society which establishes peace and harmony in the society. 

2. Difference of sovereignty: 

State always has sovereignty, whereas society does not have sovereignty. State can punish those who disobey the laws. 

3. Society is prior to state: 

Society is prior to state because man is a social animal. Then society brought state into existence. Thus, society is prior to state. 

4. Difference of Territory: 

Fixed territory is a must for state, whereas this is not necessary for society. 

5. Difference regarding government: 

It is compulsory for state to have an organised institution of government, but this is not necessary for society. 

6. Society is broader than state: 

State is related to political aspect only, whereas society is related to all the aspects of human life like economic, social, cultural, religious, political, physical, moral, emotional, intellectual and spiritual, etc.

Definition of the state given by Dr Garner, has been considered to be the best.

Social Contract Theory of Origin of State: 

Social contract theory is very important in context of origin of state. According to this theory, state is not any divine institution. State is also not a result of long evolution process. State is the natural outcome of people’s political awareness. Thus, it is a man – made institution. It is the result of contract done by men among themselves.

According to this theory, man used to live without the institution of state during ancient times. That time can be referred as chaotic or natural state. Scholars differ on the issue of condition of men during those times. Some scholars call it an ideal state. Some think that human life was not safe during that time. Later on, men felt the need for the state. Thus, they all made a mutual contract and the state was originated.

Explanation of Social Contract Theory: 

Contract in Ancient India: 

Proofs of this theory are found in ancient Indian literature. It is mentioned in ‘Shantiparva’ of ‘Mahabharata’ that there was no state earlier, rather there was chaos. Irritated from such situation, men made a mutual contract and made ‘Manu’ their ruler. Acharya Chanakya also accepted the social contract theory. 

Chanakya had given the name of‘chaos’ to the situation prior to the state. He did not consider state as a divine organization rather he considered that state was created by human efforts and was a result of the agreement by the people and accepted by Manu (king). This theory was also mentioned in Jain and Buddhist literature.

Contract theory in Western Countries: 

This theory was first propounded in western countries by Greek sophist scholars. According to them, state was originated by contract among men. Plato and Aristotle considered state not to be an artificial, but a natural organization. According to them, man is naturally a social animal and public welfare is possible only through the organization of society.

Contract Theory in Modern Times: 

Many scholars in Europe from 16th to 18th century, propounded this theory in detail. Thomas Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau are the main among them.

According to Thomas Hobbes: 

There was state of nature before the origin of the state. Man was selfish and quarrelsome. He indulged in conflicts with others for his benefits and selfishness. Thus, the fear of insecurity of life and untimely death motivated man to end this natural and chaotic situation and established an organized political society. According to John Locke : Man used to live peacefully in the natural state.

He was completely free. All the people followed natural laws and laws of morality, but this state of nature could not last long as man had many discomforts, like what is right or wrong? What are the laws of nature? Finding it impossible to follow the natural laws in the absence of a mediator and decision – maker, men entered into a social contract and created the institution of state.

According to Rousseau: 

Man used to live in simplicity and freedom before the origin of the state. He had no knowledge of right-wrong, just – unjust or religious – irreligious. But gradually, with the increase in population, jealousy and mutual conflicts emerged, and all the peace and comfort came to an end. Result of that situation was that men felt the need of organising themselves into a state and entered into a contract. A general will was created by this contract and the state was originated.

Decline off Contract Theory: 

Decline of social contract theory started in 18th centary. Many scholars at that time raised their voice against this theory. David Hume was famous among these. In 19th century, Luthiway, Benthem, Henriman, Bluntschlli and Pollack etc. scholars criticized this theory on many grounds.

Five differences between state and government are: 

1. State is abstract, Government, is concrete: 

State is an abstract concept, whereas government is a concrete and visible mechanism which is formed by a definite number of human beings. 

2. State is permanent, Government is changeable: 

Existence of state is permanent. It remains always the same. It is always a combination of four elements, whereas government, is temporary. Governments are changeable on account of many reasons like elections, moral revolution, rebellion, foreign attack, etc. 

3. Membership of state is compulsory, not of government:

 Membership of state is compulsory for everyone. It is acquired by birth, whereas being a member of government depends on the will of an individual. 

4. State has sovereignty, government, does not have: 

Sovereignty is an important element of state. Government does not have sovereignty. In democracy, public is considered to be the source of all powers of government. 

5. Territory is compulsory for state, not government: 

Fixed territory is compulsory for state, whereas it is not necessary for government. Sometimes, government of one state can be established in another state.

• State is abstract but government is concrete. 
• State is permanent but government is changeable.

• Athens 
• Sparta.

Government is that agency through which state expresses and executes its will.

• This theory is not based on historical evidences 
• This theory ignores many complex elements of evolution of state.

• Mother was considered to be the head of family 
• Marital relations were unstable.

• In older times, unit of society was family, not the individual.
• In older times, the ritual of marriage was prevalent.

Social Contract Theory of Origin of State: 

Social contract theory of origin of state is very old. This theory considers state a result of social contract made by people among themselves, not an organization made by divine power. According to this theory, state is a man – made institute. It depends neither on force nor on divine right. Proofs of social contracts can be found in ancient Indian literature.

Great explanation of social contract theory can be found is ‘Shanti Parva’ of ‘Mahabharata’. Acharya Chankaya has also asserted that state is an organization based on human efforts and consent of public, not any result of divine power. He also propounded the social contract theory.

Social contract theory can also be found in Jain and Buddhist literature. It can be found in western literature also. It was propounded by sophist scholars of ancient Greece. In modern times, this theory was propounded systematically by Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau.

Rajasthan is not a state because it lacks sovereignty.

There are three organs of state: 

• Executive 
• Legislature 
• Judiciary.

• State is abstract, while government is concrete. 
• State is permanent, while government is changeable.

Internal sovereignty means that all the individuals and organizations living within the limits of a state are under its absolute control.

Divine Origin of State: 

Theory of divine origin of state is the oldest theory. This is a completely imaginary theory. This theory considers king as representative of God. It does not consider the king responsible towards the public. It supports autocratic monarchy. It is duty of public to obey the king always. To disobey the king is a sin towards God. State is not a man-made institution, it is divine, directly or indirectly.

At first place, the supporters of this theory include ancient Jewish thinkers. This theory was accepted in Greece and Rome also. Ancient Indian thinkers along with thinkers of China and Egypt were of the view that state was created by God. According to Manusmriti, state is creation of God.

Hint of divine origin of the king can be found in ‘Shanti Parva’ of Mahabharata’. This theory started declining after 16th centuary. This theory was criticized on the grounds of being opponent of democracy, unscientific, traditional and religious, and not applicable to modern states.

Main assumptions / elements / features of patriarchal theory of origin of state are as under: 

1. Unit of society in ancient times was family. 

2. The custom of marriage was prevalent and was performed according to rituals of patriarchal families. 

3. Head of the family used to be the man (father or grandfather) and patriarchal elements were men. Every member of the family had to follow the orders of father or grandfather, otherwise he was punished severely. 

4. Genealogy was found only through men. Females had no inheritance in the family. 

5. Broad and unlimited rights of the heads of patriarchal families were main source of political power. 

6. Clans were developed from patriarchal families, tribes from clans, and state was developed from expansion of tribes. Blood relations and relationships played an important role in the expansion of families, clans and tribes.

Main features / assumptions of matriarchal theory: 

1. There was lack of permanent or stable marital relationships. Thus, the family was known by the name of the mother. So, the lady was the medium of relations. 

2. Blood relation could be known only through mother. 

3. Mother was considered the head of the family and she was the owner of the household. 

4. Females had the monopoly and inheritance on property and power. Thus, the head of the family used to be the female. 

5. After the death of the mother, property was divided not among her sons, but among her daughters. 

6. Mother was the center of power in Matriarchal families. The family governed by her had the elements of origin of state.

The English word ‘state’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Status’, which meant social level or status of any individual, but gradually, its meaning changed to the status of whole society.

Sovereignty means supreme power of state.

Sovereignty means supreme power. It has two types – Internal sovereignty and external sovereignty. Internal sovereignty means supreme power in internal matters and external sovereignty means fredom from external control.

The main difference between state and other communities is Origin.

Exclusiveness means that there cannot be two sovereigns in one state. No other sovereign state can exist within one sovereign state.

Definition of Sovereignty: 

The English word ‘Sovereignty’ is made from Latin word ‘Suprenus’, which means ‘Supreme Power’. Thus, sovereignty can be understood as the supreme power. This is an important element of state and one of the four essential constituent elements of state. Different scholars have given different definitions o’ the sovereignty of the state.

1. Jellinek: 

“Sovereignty is that characteristic of the state by virtue of which it cannot be legally bound except by its own will or limited by any other power than itself.” 

2. Prof Grotius,: 

“Sovereignty is the supreme political power vested in him whose actions are not subject to any other and whose will cannot be overridden.” 

3. Duguit: 

“Sovereignty is the commanding power of the state, is the will of nation organised in the state, it is the right to give unconditional orders to all individuals in the territory of the state.” 

4. Laski: 

“The sovereignty is legally supreme over any individual or group and possesses supreme power.” 

5. Woodrow Wilson: 

“Sovereignty is the daily operative power of framing and giving efficacy to the laws”.

6. Willoughby: 

“Sovereignty is the supreme will of the state”. It can be said on the basis of above definitions that sovereignty is the supreme power of state. It can be both, internal and external. Theoretically, it cannot be limited.

Different aspects of sovereignty are as follows:

1. Nominal or Real Sovereignty: 

Earlier, there were autocratic kings and emperors in many countries. They had the real powers and parliament used to be a mere puppet. They used real sovereignty at that time. The situation has changed after the Glorious revolution of England (1588). Now the king or the emperor has nominal powers. Only ministers use these powers. 

2. Legal Sovereignty: 

The power who makes laws in any country is called legal sovereignty. It has the power to make laws, make amendments or nullify the laws. In England, the emperorin-parliament is the legal sovereign. 

3. Political Sovereignty: 

Political sovereignty means the public support behind the laws in a state. This is the basis of legal sovereignty. This is approved by judiciary. It is under control of party politics and public opinion. 

4. Popular Sovereignty: 

It means that power of public is the greatest power. According to Garner, “The sovereignty of the people can mean nothing more than the power of the majority of electorates in a country where a system of adult universal suffrage prevails, acting through legally established channels to express their will and make it prevail.” 

5. De – jure and De – facto sovereignty: 

De-jure sovereignty is one which possesses, in legal terms the right to administration and give orders to the people. He can legally ask people to follow his orders. But when there is rebellion or external attack on a country, De-jure sovereignty fails to get his orders obeyed, then new rebell leader or attacker becomes the De – facto sovereign.

Sovereignty has six features: 

1. Absoluteness 

2. Universality 

3. Inalienability 

4. Permanence 

5. Indivisibility 

6. Exclusiveness.

English word ‘Sovereignty’ has been drived from Latin word ‘Suprenus’, which means ‘supreme power’. In this way, sovereignty means ‘supreme power. 

Definition of Sovereignty: 

The English word ‘Sovereignty’ is made from Latin word ‘Suprenus’, which means ‘Supreme Power’. Thus, sovereignty can be understood as the supreme power. This is an important element of state and one of the four essential constituent elements of state. Different scholars have given different definitions of the sovereignty of the state.

1. Jeilinek: 

“Sovereignty is that characteristic of the state by virtue of which it cannot be legally bound except by its own will or limited by any other power than itself.” 

2. Prof Grotius,: 

“Sovereignty is the supreme political power vested in him whose actions are not subject to any other and whose will cannot be overridden.” 

3. Duguit: 

“Sovereignty is the commanding power of the state, is the will of nation organised in the state, it is the right to give unconditional orders to all individuals in the territory of the state.” 

4. Laski: 

The sovereignty is legally supreme over any individual or group and possesses supreme power.” 

5. Woodrow Wilson: 

“Sovereignty is the daily operative power of framing and giving efficacy to the laws”. 

6. Willoughby: 

“Sovereignty is the supreme will of the state”. It can be said on the basis of above definitions that sovereignty is the supreme power of state. It can be both, internal and external. Theoretically, it cannot be limited. 

Different Types (kinds) of Sovereignty: 

1. Titular or Nominal and Real Sovereignty: 

Earlier, there were autocratic kings or emperors in many countries. They had real power and parliament was a mere puppet in their hands. At that time, they used real sovereignty. They were called real sovereigns. For example, before 15th century in England, in 18th and 19th century in Russia, and before 1789 in France, emperors were all in all. The real sovereignty was vested in them. But the situation changed after the 1688 – 89 revolution of England.

2. Legal Sovereignty: 

The power who makes all the laws in a country is called legal sovereignty. It has the absolute right to make laws, make amendments in them or to abrogate them. In England, the parliament along with the emperor is the legal sovereignty. In England, parliament has full right to make amendments in both common and constitutional laws through the same process. Legal sovereignty is clear, definite and supreme and recongnised by courts of law.

3. Political Sovereignty: 

Political sovereignty means public influence behind the law in a state. In modern representative governments, this is called will of people or public opinion. So, political sovereignty means total electorate, plus all other influences that mould and shape the public opinion. In democracy, legal sovereignty is affected and controlled by elections, newspapers, rallies, representative groups, organizations, strikes and pressure groups. Thus, power of public opinion is called political sovereignty.

4. Popular Sovereignty: 

Popular sovereignty means the supreme power of people in a , state. During ancient times, many scholars had used this theory to attack the absolute monarchy of the kings. Political scholar Garner has considered that popular sovereignty means that in the states where adults have the right to vote, there people have the full rights to express their opinions and to make their will prevail. 

5. Dejure and De – facto Sovereignty: 

Many times, it happens that there is a difference between real and legal sovereignty in a state. De – jure sovereign is one who has full legal authority to issue any supreme legal command in the state. He has the full authority to govern according to law and he can claim obedience. Sometimes, when there is any internal revolution or foreign aggression, then De – jure sovereign fails to claim obedience and some new revolutionary leader or foreign leader becomes the De – facto sovereign. Indeed, De – facto sovereign may be any general, Dictator, emperor or leader. This can be usually seen in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, etc.

Characteristics of Sovereignty: 

1. Absoluteness: 

Sovereignty is complete and absolute. This does not depend an any other power. All the people and organizations within the jurisdiction of the state are under its control. Outside the state also, sovereign is considered to be the supreme in context of his state. Neither can any state interfere in his internal matter nor can force it for any matter. 

2. Universality: 

Sovereignty is supreme among all the people organizations and other powers within the state. State can keep any topic out of its jurisdiction by its own, but no individual or association can advance any right to keep itself out of state’s jurisdiction. Within the territorial limits of a state, sovereignty is universal, all pervasive and all – comprehensive power. 

3. Inalienability: 

Sovereignty is inalienable. It cannot be transferred to anyone else. If sovereign wants to transfer its sovereignty to anyone else, its existence will be lost. If a state surrenders its any part to some other state, then it loses its control on that part and there will be sovereignty of the other state. If a sovereign delegates its sovereignty, it amounts to a change in the government, not to an abdication or surrender of sovereignty. 

4. Permanence: 

Sovereignty is permanent. It continues as long as the state itself exists. These both cannot be alienated from each other. Sovereignty does not end with the death or resignation by the emperor or president in any country, rather it immediately passes on to the other emperor or president. As the state continues to exist even with the change of government, sovereignty also continues to exist. 

5. Indivisibility: 

Sovereignty is complete and universal. Thus, it cannot be divided into parts. State will be divided with the division of sovereignty. The other groups and organizations within the state use power on their members, that power is given by sovereignty of the state. Power of all the other organizations is subordinate to the sovereignty of the state. In Federal government system, sovereignty itself is not divided, rather power related to sovereignty is divided among different units and parts. This division of areas of rights, and any change therein, is possible only because of the use of sovereignty. 

6. Exclusiveness: 

Exclusiveness means that there cannot be two sovereigns within a state. If two sovereigns are accepted, then unity of the state will be destroyed.