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Unicellular organisms like amoeba, euglena, paramoecium in which all life processes take place within their unicellular body.

i. bobcat, udmanjar

ii. granivores

iii. frugivores

iv. Omnivores

v. endoparasites

Decomposers feed on dead and decaying matter and therefore indirectly clean the ecosystem. If decomposers were not there then nutrients would not be able to return back and get recycled. Therefore decomposers are very important for the ecosystem.

Two different types of micro-organisms can bring about biological nitrogen fixation.

1. Root-nodules of leguminous plants contain the micro-organism rhizobium. These microorganisms absorb atmospheric nitrogen and convert if into its nitrate, a compound. 

2. Micro-organisms like azotobacter are’present in soil. They also convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates.

Humans obtain their food from both, plants and animals so human is an omnivore.

1. We prepare a variety of foodstuffs and dishes at home but we are not autotrophic organisms.

2. In autotrophic organisms they have chlorophyll in their body and food is prepared here with help of sunlight, water and CO₂ for the organisms.

3. But the food which we prepare at home is not generated in our body.

1. Rhizobium micro-organisms are useful because plants cannot take gaseous nitrogen from air. 

2. These micro-organisms absorb atmospheric nitrogen and convert it into its nitrate, a compound which is useful for plant.

1. Autotrophs have chlorophyll in the cell and here the organic food is prepared using sunlight, water and CO₂.

2. They do not depend on any other organism for survival.

3. But the heterotrophs depend on autotrophs and other organisms for survival. Hence autotrophs are more in number than heterotrophs.

Drosera burmanii grows in a soil which has nitrogen deficiency. It feeds upon insects to obtain nitrogen, so it is an insectivorous plant.

Lichen is a symbiosis between algae and fungi in which fungi provides water, minerals, as well as shelter to algae and in return the algae Master Key, provide food to the fungi. So Lichen, is an example of symbiotic nutrition.

Plant food is not produced in any other parts of the plant except the green ones because only green part contains chlorophyll and chlorophyll is very necessary for the production of food.

1. Ectoparasitic animals suck the blood of the animal on which it remains and endoparasitic animals get readymade food from the body of animal in which it remain.

2. This way both the parasites make the animal weak by sucking their blood or by eating prepared food from them.

1. In desert region due to scarcity of water and excess heat, very few cactus are found as autotrophs compared to sea. As autotrophs are less, number of heterotrophs dependent on autotrophs are smaller.

2. Whereas in sea due to greater numbers of autotrophs, greater number of heterotrophs are found.

Albert Einstein’s miserable five years’ stay at school is a telling comment on the system of education prevailing then and existing even now. This system of education has no room for individual aspirations, brilliance or aptitude. It discourages genius and originality and encourages mechanical dullards or the so-called ‘average’ students. This system lays stress on facts and dates rather than ideas. It ignores originality and creativity, which lead to progress and development.

No wonder then that most of the students manage to pass the examination by cramming – learning things by heart and repeating it in the exams. This parrot-like learning or learning without understanding may help to get the diploma but fails to enrich the mind or inculcate ideas.

The teachers and authorities insist on discipline and conformity. The history teacher and the Headteacher are sticklers for rules, pedagogy and discipline. Brilliant students like Albert Einstein are considered dullard, stupid, incompetent, unfit rebels whose very presence makes it impossible for teachers to teach and other pupils to learn.

If I were the Principal of Albert’s school, I would bring In drastic changes. I have a clear concept of education. For me. education means drawing out the best in the student. I’ll help to develop an individual’s personality by encouraging the budding talent. I know that all are not cast In the same mould. Our old system talks of uniformity and average student level. These are abstract principles. Education will focus on individual’s aptitude and talent. There will be no cramming of facts, dates or multiplication tables.

The audiovisual devices will be used as aids to learning. Computer will supplement knowledge. I will provide more facilities for self-expression. The atmosphere of the school will be relaxed. I’ll act as a father figure – a friend, philosopher and guide rather than a tormentor. hope to inculcate values through examples of personal conduct.

Exchanges between Einstein and History teacher show that Einstein is honest and truthful. He admits his shortcomings frankly. He has firm and well-defined opinions. He explains precisely what he thinks. Thus his basic intelligence, logical reasoning and lucid expression are highlighted. He showed the sparks of genius even at a young age. His maths teacher had a high opinion of him. He went to the extent of saying: “I can’t teach you more, and probably you’ll soon be able to teach me.” When Albert said that it was excessive praise, the teacher acknowledged that it was only the truth.

He made the point by saying that Albert was ready immediately to enter a college or institute for the study of higher mathematics. Albert himself said, “I’ve learnt all the maths, they teach at school and a bit more.” The headteacher told Albert that he was expelling him from school because his presence in the classroom made it impossible for the teacher to teach and other pupils to learn. No serious work could be done while he was in the class. Albert refused to learn and he was in constant rebellion.

For a moment Albert felt tempted to tell the headteacher what he thought of him and his school. Then he stopped himself. He didn’t say even a single word. Holding his head high, he went out with a sense of pride. Thus, he had a lot of self-control. Albert was not at all impolite. He addressed his teachers respectfully and answered the questions honestly.

Albert wanted to remain away from the school. He got a medical certificate from Dr Ernest Well. It was certified that he had a nervous breakdown. So he must stay away from school. He wanted to see the headteacher. Next day the headteacher called Albert to his office.

He told Albert that his work was terrible. So he was not prepared to have him in the school. Albert asked if he should think he was to be expelled. The headteacher told him that if be left the school of his own accord, the question wouldn’t arise.

Albert asked what crime he had committed. The headteacher told him that the teacher couldn’t teach the class when he was in It. In his presence, the pupils coúldni learn. Albert wanted to tell the headteacher what he thought of him and the school, but he didn’t say anything. The headteacher asked him to close the door behind him. But Albert didn’t do so. Nor did he have the last look at his school. He met only Yuri.

Learning the dates of battles or the details about victorious armies are facts. These details are part of knowledge which are content-based. There is no point in spending precious years of student life on information gathering because dates or facts could be ascertained from the books any time by just looking them up. Learning facts or parrot-like learning i.e., learning without understanding is what we call information gathering.

Analysing the facts, ascertaining the causes that led to a certain incident such as an uprising or a war and learning the ideas that spring from such actions are part of insight information. It gives us a clear perception into the true nature of a thing. Such knowledge increases our logical reasoning, power of analysis interpretation and understanding and makes us think.

This extract mentions only two of the teachers of young Einstein. They are Mr. Braun – the history teacher and Mr Koch-the mathematics teacher. The former was not at all interested in understanding Albert and bringing out his potential. He followed the traditional methods and philosophy of education which laid more stress on acquisition of knowledge.

Dates and facts were more important to him than the causes which led to the events. Secondly, he had a sarcastic attitude and mocking tone towards Einstein. Instead of helping the development of a talented boy, he complained to the headteacher and got him expelled.

Mr Koch appreciated Einstein’s genius and had a good opinion of him. But he too was confined to his subject and didn’t take interest in the real person. All this was because of the curriculum centred approach.

Mr Braun, the history teacher laid stress on learning dates and facts. He repeated them often enough for his students to learn them. Young Albert Einstein was found wanting. He didn’t know in what year the Prussians defeated the French at Waterloo. Albert frankly admitted that he didn’t know.

He said that he didn’t even try to learn dates. He claimed that he couldn’t see any point in learning dates. One can always look them up in a book. The teacher felt angry as well as amazed at Albert’s stubbornness. The boy insisted that learning facts is not education. Mr. Braun then sarcastically asked Albert to tell the class the Einstein theory of education. Albert said that ideas are more important than facts. Instead of learning the dates of battles or which of the armies killed more men, he would be more interested in learning why those soldiers were trying to kill each other.

Mr Braun felt exasperated. His eyes were cold and cruel. He punished Albert by making him stay in for an extra period that day. He had a low opinion of Einstein and called him ‘a disgrace’. He wondered why he continued to come to school. Albert politely replied that it was not his wish. Mr Braun angrily called him ‘an ungrateful boy who ought to be ashamed of himself. He suggested that the boy should ask his father to take him away.

Mr Braun asked Albert in which year the Prussians defeated the French at Waterloo. Albert told him that he didn’t know. Mr Braun said that he had told them so many times. Albert told him that he saw no point in learning dates. These could be seen in books. This made him speechless.

A consumer buys less of a commodity at a given price when:

(i) his income decreases,

(ii) when he expects a fall in the price in the near future, and

(iii) his tastes shifts against the commodity.

A consumer buys more of a commodity at a given price when:

(i) his income increases,

(ii) when he expects a rise in price in the near future, and

(iii) his tastes shift in favour of the commodity.

e^x_D = -(2); e_d = -(3)

The coefficient of price elasticity of demand is always negative due to the law of demand which states that there is an inverse relation between price and quantity demanded. We always take the absolute value of coefficient of ed i.e. ignoring the -ve signs. Thus, in the given case when we ignore the -ve signs ed_x = 2 and ed_y = 3, edy > ed_x so therefore, edy is more elastic. It implies that proportionate change in quantity demanded of y with the change in price is more than the proportionate change in the quantity demanded of x.

Normal Goods are those goods which are directly related to consumers income. When the income of a consumer increases, demand for normal goods also increases and vice versa. For example Full cream milk.

Fountain Pen and Ink.

Availability of substitutes makes it possible for the consumer to switch from one commodity to the other. Thus, if price of coffee increases, the consumers may switch over to tea, implying greater possibility of change in demand in response to change in price. Hence, elasticity of demand is high in case of good with close substitutes.

Goods:

• Commodities that have physical existence i.e. are tangible are called goods.
• In economics, goods satisfy the needs of consumption i.e. the needs of consumers.

Example:
Food items, metal, fuel, furniture, vehicles, etc. are goods.

Services:

• Commodities which are intangible or do not have a physical existence are called services.
• In economics, services are meant to satisfy the needs of human life.

Example:
Cooking, transportation, telecom, courier, etc. are services.

• Economics studies activities related to production, consumption and distribution of goods or services.
• Although the nature of goods and services is different both are important in economics.
• Units of goods or stock of goods can be measured but, services generally cannot be measured in cardinal (i.e. quantitative/numerical) terms.
• Time spent to provide a service can be measured to make service quantifiable.

Example:

• When you recharge your mobile phone by paying money you are buying a service. You get a fixed quantity of minutes/hours i.e. time in exchange of price.
• The impact of a service in satisfying human wants varies and hence is abstract.

Example:

• The need for knowledge of a student is satisfied by the service of education.
• However, it is quite difficult or say abstract to identify the exact contribution of the service of education in creating knowledge in student.
• On the other hand, a book is a good and one may be able to tell the amount of information obtained from the book.

Y is more elastic than X because one Per cent change in price of Good Y leads to one per cent change in quantity demanded while one per cent change in Good X has no effect on demand of Good X.

e_s = P / S x ∆ s / ∆ p 

 = 500 / 10 x 2 / 50 

Thus, e_s = 2

(i) Es at point L = Supply Curve intercept on X-axis/ Supply at point L

Draw a perpendicular from point L on the axis, say at OQ, The intercept of the supply curve coincide with the origin. Therefor, Es at point= OQ/OQ = 1

(ii) The given statement is correct.

Normal profit is defined as the minimum reward that is just sufficient to keep the entrepreneur supplying his factor service. Since total cost includes payment made to primary inputs: land, labour, capital and enterprise, total cost includes rent, wages, interest and (normal) profits.

E_s = P/Q x ΔQ/ΔP

= P/100 x -20/-2

= 400/20 = Rs. 20

Suppose the government gives subsidy on production of good. This raises the total revenue Cost remaining unchanged, profit rise. This provides incentive to producer to supply more.

Suppose per unit tax is raised. This raises cost of producing the good. Price remaining unchanged Profits decline. This is his disincentive to producers who supply less.

Technological progress leads to reduction in cost of producing output. Price remaining  unchanged, less cost means more profit. Thus, it increases supply of the good.

Suppose input prices rise. This raises cost. Price of the good remaining unchanged, Profits fall. This discourages the producer, so supply will decrease. Opposite happens if input prices falls.

Increase in price of factor inputs causes decrease in supply of a commodity.

Reason for 'Increase' in supply is:

(i) Fall in input prices.

(ii) Technological progress, etc.

When supply rises due to a factor other than the own price of the good or naming a factor like fall in prices of inputs, deduction in taxes on the goods etc.

Shifts in Supply curve occurs, when the supply changes due to change in any factor other than the own Price of the commodity.

When a fall in the price of a commodity leads to decrease in quantity supplied of a commodity, it is called Contraction of Supply.

When rise in the price of a commodity leads to increase in quantity supplied, it is called Extension of Supply.

Market period is a period when supply of a product can be increased only upto the extent of its existing stock.

Market Supply of a good is the sum total of quantities that all the producers of that good are willing to supply at a price during a period of time.

Market Supply of a good is the sum total of quantities that all the producers of that good are willing to supply at a price during a period of time.

Market Supply of a good is the sum total of quantities that all the producers of that good are willing to supply at a price during a period of time.

(i) Increase in input prices: Change in price of raw material and remuneration of factors, (rent, wages, interest and profit) influence the cost of production of a commodity and thereby its supply. An increase in price of inputs, will increase the cost of production leading to a reduction in profit. This will make the producer reduce the supply of the commodity, shifting the supply curve to the left.

(ii) Reduction in per unit tax: Government levies various taxes on production of goods, e.g., excise duty, etc. Such taxes influence supply because it adds to the cost of production. Reduction in per unit tax levied by the government will decrease the cost of production and increase supply by the firms due to higher profit margins. In this case the supply curve will shift towards the right.

Three causes of "Increase" in supply:

(i) Fall in the price of other goods: If there is no change in the price of the commodity concerned, and the prices of other competing commodity concerned will fall because those who are using this commodity will switch over to the use of other commodities, there by increasing its supply.

(ii) Fall in the prices of inputs : Fall in the prices of factor of production leads to a fall in the cost of production which positively affects the supply of a commodity, e.g., when the prices of inputs fall, cost of production also falls, with the result the supply of a commodity will be more at a given price.

(iii) Reduction in taxes etc: Government levies tax on every unit of commodity sold or bought. Due to levy of tax, cost of production increases and by reduction in the value of tax, cost of production declines. Therefore, if taxes are reduced cost of production falls and this leads to an increase in the supply of the commodity at the same price.