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The amount of DNA is maintained in each generation by a specialized mode of cell division called meiosis which produces specialized male and female germ cells called gametes which are haploid. One male and female gamete fertilize to give rise to a diploid zygote which has the same chromosome number as the parent. This process maintains the chromosome number and the amount of DNA in each generation.

When the seed gets the right conditions the embryo within it starts growing to form the shoot and the root. When the embryo emerges out of the seed to form a new seedling it is called the germination of seed.

(a) Indian Councils Act of 1909

Under the Government of India Act, 1919

In 1858 the British emperor take control over Indian rule.

By the Regulating Act of 1773.

(d) Diarchy system was against women’s right to vote

As the expenditure on India Council was being recovered from India.

The seed contains the future plant or embryo which can develop into a seedling under appropriate conditions. The seed is in a state of dormancy and can be kept in secure state for long period of time.

The zygote, after fertilisation in plants, divides several times to form an embryo, which is the future plant. This embryo is enclosed inside the ovule. The ovule, gradually hardens and develops into a small, tough and persistent structure, which encloses the embryo, called the seed. 

This seed, when under favourable conditions of soil, water and air, develops into a seedling, a process known as germination. This germinated seedling further is involved in the development of new plant. This way, the seed helps in reproduction.

Through the Government of India Act, 1858.

Under Indian Councils Act, 1919.

As India Secretary.

(d) All these

Four provision of the Act of 1919: 

These provisions are given in the following points: 

1. Change in India council: 

There was a provision of appointing minimum 8 and maximum 12 members in India council under this Act. Out of these, half of the members must have lived in India for minimum 10 years at the date of appointment and must have not left this country before 5 years of appointment date. The term of the council was also decreased from 7 to 5 years. 

2. Foundation of Chamber of Princes: 

Taking into consideration importance of native rulers, formation of chamber of princes was suggested. On the basis of this suggestion, chamber of prince was established on February 9 th, 1921. It was only an advisory institution. Its president was the Governor-General. 

3. Right to vote and election: 

The right for voting was increased by this Act. Due to this increase, about 10 per cent of population obtained the right to vote. Under Indian Councils Act of 1909, only the Muslims were provided the right of voting. Under this Act of 1919, Sikhs, Christians, Europeans and Anglo -Indians also obtained this right separately. 

4. The Centralization of power: 

Some subjects related to finance and administration were centralized. They were granted to provinces instead of central government. Right of receiving the loans and to levy tax were also provided to the provinces for the very first time. By establishing a partially responsible rule in provinces, an effort was made towards decentralization.

• Central Legislative Assembly 
• Council of State.

A seed is the reproductive unit of a plant which can be used to grow into a new plant. It contains a body plant or embryo and food for the baby plant. The baby plant present in a seed is in the dormant or inactive state. When the seeds get suitable conditions of water, warmth, air, and light, then new plants grow out of these seeds. In this way, the parent plant reproduces more plants like itself by forming seeds through flowers.

In the year 1911.

Under Government of India Act, 1919.

(b) Establishment of diarchy in the provinces.

• Improvement in central legislative council 
• Expansion of executive councils.

• The restriction related to the number of members in the executive council was removed 
• the advocates having 10 years working experience in high court, were considered eligible to be chosen as the legal members in council.

The tenure of assembly and state council was 3 years and 5 years respectively.

Tej Bahadur Sapru became a legal member in the central executive council under the Act of 1919.

(a) Tej Bahadur Sapru

ln plants pollination is followed by fertilization. The pollen grains deposited on the stigma form tubes called pollen tube. One pollen tube grows through the style and reaches the ovary, where ovules are located. inside the ovule, the pollen tube releases two male gametes into the embryo sac. The embryo sac of the ovule contains the egg. One male gamete fuses with the egg. This function is called syngamy. The other male gamete fuses with the polar nuclei. This process is called the triple fusion. This mechanism of two fusions occurring in an embryo sac is called double fertilization. After fertilization, the ovary develops into the fruits and ovule into the seeds.

• The participation of Indians would be increased in the administration
• autonomous institutions would be developed.

(d) Drought relief

(c) Subhash Chandra Bose was made the member of central executive council.

(a) Introduction of communal election system for the first time.

The pollen grain starts germinating and forms a pollen tube. The pollen tube grows in the style till reaches the ovule through micropyle where it fertilizes with female gamete.

(d) For the establishment of responsible governance, the close relation of Indians with every branch of administration and a gradual change in autonomous institutions would be ensured.

Only two Indian members.

(a) Who had on annual income of 15000.

• Introduction of communal election system
• Official majority in the central legislature.

The acceptance of governor or lieutenant governor and the approval of governor general was essential for the bills passed by the provincial legislative councils.

• Improvement in central legislative council
• Expansion of executive councils.

Only one Indian member was included.

Under the Indian Councils Act, 1909.

People were granted the right to vote under the Indian Councils Act, 1909.

There were two types of non – official members in the provincial legislative councils : 

• Nominated non – official members 
• Elected non – official members.

In the Indian Councils Act, 1909.

In the Indian Councils Act, 1909, the arrangement of separate electorates was made.

According to Indian Councils Act, 1909.

Given Focal length (f) = 4D

P (in diopter) = \(\frac{1}{f(in\,meters)}\) 

⇒ 4 = \(\frac{1}{f(in\,meters)}\)

⇒ f (in meters) = \(\frac14\)= 0.25m

Now 1m = 100cm 

⇒ 0.25m = 25cm 

Hence the focal length of lens is 25cm.

Utility of Diarchy System: 

The utility of diarchy system can be described with the help of the following points: 

• The Indian people were given the right to vote largely, for the first time under this Act, due to which a political awareness was seen among them.
• The regular elections developed an alertness among the people towards public life. Indians were able to get political knowledge and their self – confidence increased. 
• Almost in all the provinces, women also got the right to vote along with men. 
• A notable work was done by the ministers in India in all the fields of life. The ministers tried their best in removing serial evils. 
• Due to diarchy, Indianization of public services was initiated.

Indian Councils Act, 1909.

The inherent deficiencies of diarchy system: 

The inherent demerits of diarchy system are given below: 

1. Faulty principle: 

The diarchy system was theoretically faulty. The governance of the same province was kept under two different powers. Therefore, it was natural to create obstructions in smooth governance. 

2. Arbitrary powers of governor: 

Due to the policy of controlling the ministers, refusing the proposals of ministers and the direct interference in every subject by the Governor, the responsibilities could not be handed over to Indian ministers in real terms. 

3. Lack of control of ministers over bureaucracy:

The Governor had direct control over the appointment of members in public service, their transfers and promotions. It was not under the ministers, who were their immediate bosses. 

4. No finance for Transferred subjects: 

The subjects of administration in the provinces were divided, but there was no financial arrangement for both the subjects separately. Without finance, no effective governance could be imagined.

(b) Ajmer- Merwara

Diarchy system – Faulty and impracticable Cause of failure of diarchy system: 

The diarchy system was ended on April 1, 1937. 

Main causes of this have been given as below: 

1. Theoretically faulty: 

The diarchy system was theoretically faulty. It is natural for obstructions to arise, if the governance of a province is kept under two different powers. 

2. Impracticable division of subjects: 

The division of subjects was so irrational that it was not practicable at any cost. For example : There was an agriculture minister without irrigation department, and the industrial minister had no departments of factories, hydro electricity, minerals and labor, and this type of formation of ministries was impracticable. 

3. Arbitrary powers of governor: 

There was a policy in favor of governor who could control the ministers, refuse their proposals and could interfere in every subject. Due to this policy, the responsibilities could not be transferred effectively. 

4. No separate finance for transferred subjects:

 Although the provincial subjects were divided, but there were no separate financial arrangements for both. Without proper finance, effective governance could not be possible. 

5. Lack of control of ministers over civil services:

 The governor had absolute right of appointments, transfer and promotion in civil services. The ministers could do nothing in these cases,though civil services were kept under their control.

6. The formation of legislative council was faulty: 

There were 80 per cent official or officially nominated members in the legislature. The nominated members were the representatives of specific interests and they did nothing but to please the governance. 

7. Lack of collective responsibility: 

The Governor did not appoint the ministers on party basis. All of them were not of the same group and so there was a lack of collective responsibility. 

8. The political environment was unfavorable: 

In India, the major repressive incidents of Jallianwala Bagh massacre, Khilafat movement, Rowlatt act, etc. created a feeling of distrust, frustration and anger among-st Indians. Towards the reforms started by the British Government, there was a feeling of apathy and scorn in the hearts of Indians. 

9. Economic plight and Manston arbitration: 

There was a terrible drought in 1920. There was an environment of despair all around. Due to poverty and starvation, there was dissatisfaction among-st Indians. More than half of the provinces were forced to provide a higher grant to the center, according to Manston arbitration. 

10. Discord between Congress and Muslim League:

There was a lack of cooperation between Congress and Muslim league. The British policy of “divide and rule” increased the differences between the two. 

11. Non – cooperation of Bureaucracy: 

The British bureaucracy was not ready to work under Indian ministers. This was a major factor behind the failure of diarchy system. 

12. Change in the opinion of British government: 

After the formation of the right wing conservative party government in Britain, the viewpoint of British government also changed for reforms and so its interference in the provinces also increased.