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The total amount of water excreted daily through human body is 2.60 litres.

(a) Menarche is the onset of menstruation in young females at about 13 years of age whereas menopause is the permanent stoppage of menstruation at about 45 years of age.

(b) Cowper's gland opens into urethra in human males and its secretion serves as a lubricant whereas the prostate gland surrounds the urethra in males and its alkaline secretion neutralizes acid in female's vagina.

(c) Hymen is a thin membrane that partially covers the opening of vagina in young females whereas clitoris is a small erectile structure located in the uppermost angle of vulva in front of the urethral opening.

(d) Uterus is a hollow, pear shaped muscular organ located in the pelvic cavity. It is the site of implantation for the embryo after fertilisation whereas the vagina is the muscular tube extending from the cervix to the outside. At the time of sexual intercourse, the vagina receives the male penis and provides entry for the sperms.

(e) Efferent ducts join to form the epididymis whereas the epididymis is continued by the side of the testes to give rise to the sperm duct or vas deferens.

Kidneys are the major excretory organs. Other accessory excretory structures are liver, lungs, skin and intestine.

Ascending limb

Sebaceous glands (wax - glands)

Excretion is the elimination of unwanted waste substances which have been produced as a result of metabolism within the cells of body.

These are the collecting ducts which unite together in the medulla to form the longer duct, the duct of Bellini.

Glycosuria, Ketonuria

Glucose and amino acids are two threshold substances.

Bowman's capsule and glomerulus are collectively known as Malpighian corpuscles.

The Bowman’s capsule along with the glomerulus is known as Malpighian corpuscle or Renal corpuscle. Bowman’s capsule is a double-walled cup-like structure. The wall is made of epithelial tissue. The hollow of the cup is occupied by the glomerulus. Blood flowing through the glomerulus is filtered, which is the first step in urine formation and is called ultrafiltration.

The filtration membrane is made up of

• The endothelium of glomerular capillaries.
• The epithelium of Bowman’s capsule 
• The basement membrane between the two.

1. Digestive system of cockroach consists of mouthparts, alimentary canal and salivary glands. 

2. Mouthparts: Pre-oral cavity present in front of the mouth receives food. It is bounded by chewing and biting type of mouth parts. These are movable, segmented appendages that help in ingestion of food. 

The mouthparts of cockroach comprises of: 

(a) Labrum:

It forms the upper lip. It is a single flap-like movable part which covers the mouth from upper side. It forms an anterior wall of preoral cavity.

Function: It is useful in holding the food during feeding. 

(b) Mandibles:

These are two dark, hard, chitinous structures with serrated median margins. They are true jaws present on either side, behind the labrum. 

Function: They perform co-ordinated sidewise movements with the help of adductor and abductor muscles to cut and crush the food. 

(c) Maxillae: 

These are the accesssory jaws. They are also called as first pair of maxillae. These are situated on the either side of mouth behind the mandibles. Each maxilla consists of sclerites like cardo, stipes, galea, lacinia and maxillary palps. 

Functions: 

Maxillae hold food, help mandibles for mastication. They are also used for cleaning the antennae and front legs. Maxillary palps act as tactile organs. 

(d) Labium:

It forms the lower lip. Labium is also known as second maxilla which covers the pre-oral cavity from the ventral side. It is firmly attached to the posterior part of head. It has three jointed labial palps which are sensory in function. 

Function: It is useful in pushing the chewed food in the pre-oral cavity. It prevents the loss of food falling from the mandibles, while chewing. 

(e) Hypopharynx:

Hypopharynx is also known as lingua. It is a somewhat cylindrical single structure, located in front of the labium and between first maxillae. The salivary duct opens at the base of hypopharynx. Hypopharynx bears comb-like plates called super-lingua on either side. Hypopharynx is present at the centre of the mouth.

Function:

It is useful in the process of feeding and mixing saliva with food,

3. Alimentary canal: It is long a (6 – 7cm) tube of different diameters with two openings. 

4. The alimentary canal is into three parts: 

foregut, midgut and hindgut 

(a) Foregut or stomodaeum: 

It consists of pharynx, oesophagus, crop and gizzard. 

1. Pharynx: 

It is very short, narrow but muscular tube that opens into oesophagus. 

Function: Conduction of food into the oesophagus. 

2. Oesophagus: It is slightly long and narrow tube which opens into crop. 

3. Crop:

Crop is a large, pear shaped and saclike organ. 

Function: It temporarily stores the food and then sends it to gizzard. 

4. Gizzard: Gizzard or proventricuius is a small spherical organ. It is provided internally with a circlet of six chitinous teeth and backwardly directed bristles. The foregut ends with gizzard. 

Function:

The chitinous teeth present in gizzard are responsible for crushing the food and the bristles help to filter the food. 

(b) Midgut or mesenteron:

It consists of stomach and hepatic caeca. 

1. Ventriculus or stomach:

It is straight, short and narrow. Stomach is lined by glandular epithelium which secretes digestive enzymes. 

Function: It is mainly responsible for digestion and absorption. 

2. Hepatic caeca: 

These are thin, transparent, short, blind (closed) and hollow tubules. 

Function: They secrete digestive enzymes. 

(c) Hindgut or proctodaeum : 

It consists of ileum, colon and rectum. 

1 Ileum:

It is short and narrow part of hindgut. Malpighian tubules open in the anterior lumen of ileum, near the junction of midgut and hindgut. Posterior region of ileum contains sphincter. Ileum directs the nitrogenous wastes and undigested food towards colon.

2. Colon: It is a longer and wider part of the hindgut. It directs waste material towards the rectum. It reabsorbs water from wastes as per the need. 

3. Rectum:

It is oval or spindle-shaped, terminal part of the hindgut. It contains six rectal pads along the internal surface for absorption of water. Rectum opens into anus. Anus is present on the ventral side of the 10th segment. It is the last or posterior opening of the digestive system. The undigested food is released out of the body through anus.

5. Salivary glands: 

a. Cockroach has a pair of salivary glands which secrete saliva. 

b. Each salivary gland has two glandular lobes and a receptacle or reservoir. 

c. The glandular lobes consists of several irregular-shaped white coloured lobules which secrete saliva. 

d. Each gland has a salivary duct. Both the ducts unite to form a common salivary duct. 

e. Receptacle of each salivary gland is thin walled, elongated, sac-like structure. Each receptacle has a duct. These ducts unite to form common reservoir duct. 

f. Common salivary duct and common reservoir duct unite together to form a common efferent salivary duct. The efferent salivary duct opens at the base of tongue or hypopharynx.

(A) Supra-oesophageal ganglion

A pair of centrioles are called diplosomes.

Robert Hooke (in 1665) introduced the term cell.

(i) Primary lysosome, 

(ii) Secondary lysosome, 

(iii) Autophagosomes, 

(iv) Residual bodies.

Singer and G. Nicolson.

Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen & Nitrogen.

Lactose – in milk, Sucrose – in sugar cane.

The exoskeleton in insects in made up of Chitin.

Fibrin the protein found in the blood clot.

Phospholipids & glycolipid

Lipids are the richest source of energy. They are the stored food material.

Proteins is the most important substance for the growth and formation of new cells.

Hypothalamus

They are the units of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide consists of one molecule of phosphoric acid, one molecule of sugar & one molecule of nitrogen base.

(a) Globular proteins : They are soluble in water. 

The polypeptides are coiled and folded. 

Example : Enzymes, most of the hormones (Insulin, Thyrox-ine), Globins, Histones, Fibrinogen, Protamines, Glutelins etc. 

(b) Fibrous proteins : The are insoluble in water. 

Their molecules are long, thread-like and contractile. They are structural proteins.

Examples : Collagen & Elastin (Found in tendons, cartilages, bones), Keratin (found in skin, nails, horn, hair, feathers), actin & myosin (found in muscles) etc.

Desert adaptation.

Constant body temperature of human beings.

Concern to energy flow, what the plants are called Producers.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates. They are formed by the condensation of monosaccharides.

Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid

Peptones & Proteoses

The do – while loop is an exit-controlled loop. In do-while loop, the condition is evaluated at the bottom of the loop after executing the body of the loop. This means that the body of the loop is executed at least once, even when the condition evaluates false during the first iteration. 

The do – while loop syntax is:

do

{

Body of the loop;

}

while(condition);

fclose($file_Objecdt):

(b) file_get_contents( )

Client-Side Validation:

The input data validations are performed on the client machine’s web browsers using client side scripts like Java script or adding “required” attribute in HTML input tags.

(b) It used to open Remote Serve

Server Side Validation: After the submission of data, validations are performed on the server side using the programming like PHP, ASP or JSP etc. available in the server machine

fread($file_Object,filesize(“FileName”));

The file finally moves under the image directory if the array error variable is empty.

$file_Object= fopen(“File Name” , “Read A write Mode”) or die(“Error Message!”);

(d) all the above

(i) Asynchronous Javascript

(ii) HTML DOM

Files

File handling is an important activity of all web application development process.

Files are processed for different tasks using the following events:

1. PHP Open a File 

2. PHP Read a File 

3. PHP Close a File 

4. PHP Write a File 

5. PHP Appending a File and 

6. PHP uploading a File.

Basic HTML Form Controls 

The following control types are available in HTML form controlling: 

1. Text inputs 

2. Checkbox 

3. File Select 

4. Buttons 

5. Radio box 

6. Form Tag 

Text inputs contain textbox and text area controls. Buttons may contain Submit button, Reset button and Cancel Button.

1. Validation is a process of checking the input data submitted by the user from client machine. 

2. There are two types of validation available in PHP. They are as follows, Client-Side Validation, Server Side Validation.

2 types of validation are available in PHP

Context is set of options in append that can modify the behaviour of a stream.

client side and server-slide