Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

Painting: Both Hindus and Muslim artists were encouraged at Mughals courts. The development of painting was very fast in the reign, of Jahangir. King Jahangir was interested in collecting pictures of historical interests. Hindu artists were also famous during this period.

Architecture: Mugal architecture started during the reign of Babar. During Mughal, reign mosques were built at Dholapur, Gwalior, and any other places. Akbar was a lover of art. Akbar fort and many other beautiful buildings were constructed during Akbar’s reign. Shahjahan was a great lover of architecture. The Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid, Taj Mahal erected in the memory of his wife Mumtaj are the unforgettable work of Shahjahan.

Music: Babar and Humayun were interested in music. Tansen was one of the nine jewels of Akbar. Singers and musicians were encouraged during the Mughal period. Indian instruments were also influenced by Islam. The Indian Veena and the Irani Tambura merged together to emerge as Sitar.

False – It covered the expedition in five legs with stop-overs only at four ports.

The term, circumnavigate means to travel all the way around something, especially the earth.

The word ‘Tarini’ means ‘boat’ and in Sanskrit it means ‘Saviour’.

Tara – Tarini is worshipped for safety and success at sea.

This statement is True.

The British continued to rule India till the 20th century. Several systems were set in place under British rule in India. Some of the social reforms were also possible because of British policies. Let us look at some consequences of colonialism in India which had a significant impact on Indian society

Education: The British set up a system of education that had a far-reaching impact on Indian society. The medium of instruction in the high school communication among the learned people now became English, schools, and colleges were open to all individuals, irrespective of caste, creed, gender, etc. 

The content of education was secular – which included subjects like Mathematics, Science, Philosophy, Sociology, History, etc.

This led to the rise of a new class of intelligentsia, who were of Indian origin but trained in ‘Western’ values, customs, and practices. Some of them played a significant role in the reform movements.

New values like rationality, equality, social justice, secular approach, and individualism gained firmer ground in Indian society.

Culture: Many of the educated elite took to the lifestyle of the British with respect to food habits, dressing, customs mannerisms, attitudes, beliefs, language, sports, and entertainment, etc., M. N. Srinivas referred to this process of imitation of the British, as ‘westernization’.

Administration: The British started new systems of administration like the Economic Service, Education Service, Revenue Service, and Administrative Service. It was the English educated Indians who entered the administrative services to assist the British rulers in governing the land and its people.

A new judiciary system was created, which took into consideration the earlier legal traditions of the Indian communities. However, its implementation was carried out on a secular basis; each individual was judged on an equal basis, irrespective of one’s caste and creed.

The Indian Councils Act, The Indian High Court Act, and The Indian Civil Service Act of 1861, all led to major changes in the Executive, Legislative and Judicial administration of India.

Indian Navy’s all-women adventure sailing crew, which aimed at several record-making I achievements with an ambitious circumnavigation of the globe, was in the capital to meet Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the top brass of the Navy, before it embarked on a voyage to circumnavigate earth.

The selection process was indeed not an easy one. In order to promote ocean sailing activities and to encourage women empowerment, the Indian Navy conceptualized this idea of the First Indian All Women Circumnavigation of the Globe. Out of the thirty women who had applied, six of them were shortlisted, based on the little survival skills they showcased. They were led by Lieutenant Commander Vartika Joshi.

These officers had done basic sail training courses at INWTC Mumbai followed by Navigation, Seamanship, Communication and Meteorology courses at various naval training schools at Kochi. After completion of theoretical courses, the officers sailed INSV Mhadei to Vizag for the International Fleet Review 2016 and thereafter to Mauritius and back.

Following that, they sailed the boat on a gruelling voyage to Cape Town in December. Lt. Commander Jamwal revealed that they were selected from different cadres and trained extensively for three-years where they learnt about navigation, communication, weather prediction and sailing.

The selected team was extensively mentored and trained by Dilip Donde, the first Indian to circumnavigate the globe from the Navy in the project ‘Sagar Parikrama’.Classroom courses were different from sailing outside.

So, they were given hands- on training, like, how to repair things and how to deal with emergencies, when the weather got rough. They underwent basic sail training courses in Mumbai at the Indian Naval Waterman ship Training Centre (INWTC), and at various schools in the southern naval base in Kochi.

They even sailed on INSV Mhadei to Mauritius (in 2016 and 2017) and back and also to Cape Town in December 2016. They were trained for almost three years to prepare for the voyage. “Confidence comes from discipline and training.”

The crew members have all sailed and trained the same amount and everybody has their own way of dealing with situations. This was a good thing because they could discuss different ways of solving a problem and choose the best one. When they were at sea, teamwork is vital in the middle of the crisis. Even during the storm when three people would be out on watch, the other three staying inside would be restless. When one would heat the water, the other would heat the gloves because it was also raining.

The support the crew members received was a major factor. When they knew that they were doing well and looked after themselves well, in spite of all apprehensions they were supportive. The crew members’ personal aim and target mattered a lot. Mostly they wanted to make sure that they complete the journey with ultimate honesty without the use of engines.

Than the destination, the journey was important. So their contention was to make sure that they go by the rules of circumnavigation without any means of repulsion and anybody else’s assistance. The L presence of mind and common sense to make decisions and act quickly was an added factor. They had to quickly do an analysis of problem solving techniques. Ego should never come I amidst them. Team work helped them to collaborate and work together. Mutual understanding I was important too.

One would heat the water while the other would heat the gloves or even rested. Over all the confidence you had in each other than the trust and acceptance as every member of the crew to be a family was a must to carry out the expedition. “It’s about women helping women and women doing things together and supporting each other.”

In the South Pacific, they encountered a storm where the seas were almost nine to ten meters high and the winds were picking up to 60-70 knots. It was normal on sea where there was hardly any land mass to stop the winds. However, after a lot of hard work and effort, they were able to fix it together and feel blissful. They would remember those incidents because it gave them the strength to move on and overcome those challenges.

At festival times they celebrated and had fun. They celebrated Diwali during their expedition. They celebrated three birthdays including the first birthday of the boat and also specific occasions like crossing the equator, the International Date Line and so on.

The crew knew that the entire country was watching them and praying for them. So they never wanted them to have a single day thinking that they were in trouble. They knew that it was going to happen but the people out there did not know what kind of challenges they were facing. So,one of the motives that they kept in mind was that they did not want to frighten anyone.

The crew started with some theoretical courses on navigation, communication and weather prediction. Classroom courses were different from sailing outside. So, they were given hands- on training, like, how to repair things and how to deal with emergencies, when the weather is rough,during medical needs and training needing tactical aspects as well. They underwent their basic sail training courses in Mumbai at the Indian Naval Waterman ship Training Centre (INWTC), and at various schools in the southern naval base in Kochi. They even sailed on INSV Mhadei to Mauritius in 2016 and 2017 and back and also to Cape Town in December 2016.

(d) Greater vehicle – Mahayana

The crew started their voyage on 10th September, 2017 from Goa. They returned back to India on 21st May, 2018. It took them 254 days to complete the expedition.

(i) Animism

(ii) Puranas

(iii) Purusharthas

(iv) Jati system

(v) Vardhaman Mahavir

(vi) Ardhamagadhi

(vii) Jainism

(viii) Buddhism

(b) Ulemas and Brahmin – Priests

(b) Nomadic ballad singers – The Bards

Kautilya propounded the concept of justified and appropriate prices in the sphere of price determination. He included an article’s production cost and a reasonable profit in justifiable price of a commodity. A justified price does not reduce producer’s motivation as in a socialist economy, nor does it overburden the consumer’s pocket as in a capitalist economy. If the price remains below production cost, the producer will stop producing that product, and unemployment will increase. On the other hand, consumer demand will decrease if prices are too high. In both situations, production will drop and unemployment will increase.

According to Kautilya, determination of prices of commodities should be done by officials appointed by the king, called ‘Panyadhyaksha’ and ‘Sansthadhyaksha.’ Kautilya suggests to the ‘Panyadhyaksha’ (head of commerce) regarding determination of price that he should ascertain whether a commodity has a demand in the market or not. He says that the fluctuation in prices are linked to demand and supply. Prices of commodities rise with increasing demand, while prices decrease with increasing supply. In this way Kautilya factors in the principle of demand and supply in price determination while advocating state control in price determination.

According to Kautilya, many elements affect the prices of commodities. Prices should be decided after calculating the salaries, transportation cost, rent, state of society, etc. According to him, the chief of markets should consider the benefit of society along with other elements. He suggested that readily perishable goods like milk, vegetables, etc. should be sold off at the earliest at any place and at any price since these things spoil very quickly. Kautilya says that if prices increase at the behest of traders and workers, then it is against the principles of justice. Therefore, determination of prices of things should be done in accordance with the country and the time.

Following are the key welfare schemes described by Kautilya :

• Pension Scheme : According to Kautilya, in the event of death of the employee while performing the work, his full salary should be given to his wife/son in the form of pension. 
• Rules for leave : The casual leave arrangement was made to the labourer due to the occurrence of an incidental work or any adversity. The labourer can take leave and send in another person in place of himself. 
• Overtime : Kautilya also provided for overtime in the work of embroidery, weaving done on festivals, holidays, etc. 
• Preference in employment to the poor and helpless : Kautilya made such arrangements under which widows, physically disabled, women, artists, etc. were employed on the basis of priority in the work of embroidery and weaving. He also arranged overtime for this work. Fixed and temporary employees received less or more salary in line with their qualifications and working capacity.

Kautilya’s economics describes a number of taxation rules. These rules are related to the amount of tax, recovery methods, and methods of taxation. 

A brief description of the rules is as follows-

• Appropriate and Justified Taxation : The king should not realize taxes at his whim and fancy. In adverse times, the king should request politely for heavy taxation and impose it only once. Infertile land should never be taxed heavily. 
• Timely Tax Collection : According to Kautilya, agricultural tax should be collected only when the crop has ripened. The king should not impose taxes at inopportune times to collect wealth. 
• Taxation in accordance with capability : According to Kautilya everyone should be taxed according to their capability. This makes the tax collection easy and people do not oppose it. 
• Financial Discipline : Kautilya laid a lot of emphasis on financial discipline. According to him, all taxes obtained from the people should be deposited in the treasury. Honest and qualified staff should be appointed for this work. Income from taxation should not be misused. There should be a proper arrangement that the employes involved in this work are not involved in corruption.

Kautilya’s real name was Vishnugupta. He helped destroy the Nanda dynasty and placed Chandragupta on the throne. His ideology was materialistic. For this reason, the then priestly class gave him the name Kautilya to give hint of his evilness. Acharya Kautilya had more knowledge than any other teacher. He contemplated upon contemporary economic problems and the economy. Kautilya is also known as Chanakya.

Kautilya said that to encourage business, the state should build waterways, and inland roads, and large markets and mandis. By collecting saleable goods in these markets, they should arrange for their purchase and sale. There should also be security arrangements on the commercial roads of the state. Kautilya wanted the merchants to have a fair advantage and availability of goods at reasonable prices to the consumers.

Kautilya has accepted the importance of livestock. Description of an official named Goadhyaksha’ has been given in ‘Arthashastra’ for care and rearing of cow, buffalo, etc domestic animals. Grazing lands have been mentioned for grazing animals.

Wages have been fixed for cow herds who graze animals. One pana each for one animal per annum is the fixed wages. Realising the importance of animal wealth, Kautilya mentions rules for arrangement of foods and water for animals and stringent action against those who harms animals.

Kautilya made such arrangements under which widows, physically disabled, women, artists, etc. were.employed on the basis of priority in the work of embroidery and weaving. He also arranged overtime for this work. Fixed and temporary employees received less or more salary in line with their qualifications and work capacity.

Kautilya was of the opinion that in such systems where there was no definite form of wage determination, according to the practice of business, wages should be given as cash or commodity. Kautilya writes that wages are paid for work, not for sitting idle. Thus, if a worker does not work properly, his tasks should be given to others , or he should be removed from employment.

Kautilya has given special importance to agriculture in his book Arthashastra. He was of the opinion that the king should appoint an agricultural officer who should collect good seeds of cereals, fruits, vegetables, cotton, etc. and supply them in the fields from time to time. To increase the production, he has also advised the use of suitable fertilisers in the fields. According to him, good manure should be used in fields and not bad manure.

Following are the four types of currencies described in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ : 

1. Gold Coins 

2. Silver Coins or Karshapan or Pana or Dharan 

3. Standard Copper 

4. Kankani Copper

Kautilya has given priority to Artha among Religion, Artha and Kaam.

Kautilya was of the opinion that the treasurer should keep a complete* description of the state’s income-expenditure. The income-expenditure register should include the name of the month, party, and day, time and name of the author, and the name of the taker. Finally, complete details of savings or balance should be prepared. The accounts should be kept in such a way that the audit of last 60 years of income expenditure can be seen as required. He also suggested punishment for those who manipulated the accounts of income expenditure.

According to Kautilya, state has the right to the land within its boundaries, thus imposition of tax on the mined materials was the king’s right. The official supervising the mines arranged the production and sale of all kinds of ‘Shankh,’ ‘Vajra’, ‘Mukta’, etc. minerals. Salt imported from abroad was taxed 1/6th its price/cost. One who stole metals was penalized eightfold of the stolen value. One who stole jewels was to be given the death sentence.

Kautilya was of the view that the arrangements for the sale of the items being procured in the state should be in a certain place. The arrangements for the sale of goods originating abroad should be arranged in many places. Thereby, the public should not suffer. Kautilya was in favour of giving full protection to the traders by the state.

According to Kautilya, the king should realize road tax from traders through his border guards (Antapalas). A vehicle loaded with trading commodities must be taxed 1/4th pana, 1/2th pana on animal, 1/4th pana on small animal, and load carried on shoulders of labourer was taxed 1 masha.

Kautilya was of the opinion that the wages should be in proportion to the amount of labour done by the worker and the time engaged in that production. The worker should be given the wages only for the work done by him. Wages should be given to the cotton-worker, looking at the thickness and quality of the yam. He was of the opinion that the salaries of government employees should be commensurate with their qualifications and work capacity.

When Aishwarya was told about the flare- ups at sea, she had second thoughts about joining the team.

Kautilya had conceived the concept of justified and fair price. In fair price, they used to cover the costs as well as the appropriate benefits. He said that the producer/trader should not take more than 5% profit on indigenous goods, and 10% on foreign goods. According to him, many elements affect the price of the goods such as salaries, transport expenses, customs, festivals, fashion, rent and society, etc. According to him, the price of the goods should be determined by Panyadhyaksha or Sansthadhyaksha appointed by the king.

Following are the types of labour unions mainly mentioned by Kautilya: 

1. Weavers Union 

2. Mining Employees Union 

3. Stone-Craftsmen Union 

4. Carpentry Union 

5. Priests Union 

6. Singers Union 

7. Lowly Artistes Union 

8. Buyers-sellers Union 

9. Service Unions

The crew was mentored by Commander Dilip Donde.

Little survival skills we showcased was considered important in the selection process.

Thirty women applied for six of them to be shortlisted, as members of the crew.

According to Kautilya, after accounting for the state’s income-expenditure, the balance remaining is called savings (fund). 

Savings are of two types :

1. Obtained savings is that which is present and deposited in the treasury, 

2. Committed saving is that which is to be deposited in the treasury.

1. Cost of living theory of wages 

2. Productivity theory of wages

Kautilya’s Arthashastra describes several principles of wage determination, which are briefly described below :

• Cost of Living theory of Wages : Kautilya says that a worker’s wages should be sufficient to enable him provision of bodily comforts and allow him to serve his master with complete zest and dedication and enable him to be free from any kind of greed and dissatisfaction. This concept of Kautilya makes clear that the wages of the labourers should be equal to the amount required for the maintenance of life.
• Ability Theory of Wages : Different workers have varying abilities. Skilled and unskilled workers cannot be paid the same wages. Therefore, Kautilya thought that the workers should be paid wages and allowances according to their skill and efficiency. 
• Productivity Theory of wages : Kautilya very clearly states that a worker’s salary should be in the ratio of quantity produced by him and the time taken by him to produce that quantity. Wages should be paid to worker only for the work that has been done by him. A worker weaving/ spinning thread should be paid according to the thickness, type of the thread or in accordance with its quality. 
• Customary Theory of wages : Regarding the businesses in which there was no definite form of wage determination, Kautilya had said that in such a business, wages should be given as cash or in the form of commodity in practice. He had these views that if an employee does not work then he should be punished. 
• Share Theory of Wages : In the professions where it was not possible to fix wages, Kautilya was of the opinion that workers should get a share from the production. Chanakya says that the farmer’s servant should take grain, ghee be taken by shepherd’s servant, the servant of vaishya will take one-tenth part of the items he has sold/handled, but on the condition that his salary is not decided earlier.

Provision of Social Security: Kautilya also made provisions for the welfare and safety of the workers. 

Some of the major schemes are the following :

• Pension Scheme : Kautilya had also created a pension scheme, according to which if an employee dies while working, his salary should be given to his son and wife in the form of a pension. Not only this, financial aid should also be given to children, elderly and sick family members of such employees. They should be given financial assistance even in the event of death or disease in their home and on the birth of their child.
• Rules of Leave : Kautilya clarified that If the labourers get sick at the time of incidental work or have suffered adversity, they will be entitled to casual leave. They can send someone in their own place to take leave. He also clarified that if the work of embroidery is done by women labourers during festivals or holidays, then they should be paid extra wages in addition to food, pulses and goods. 
• Preference in Employment for the poor and disabled : Kautilya made a provision that the king should give employment on a preferential basis to widows, disabled women, artistes, etc. in jobs like spinning and weaving. He also provided for overtime in tasks of spinning and weaving. Temporary and permanent employees should get less or more salaries depending on their ability and work capability.

Following are the officials appointed by the provision of Kautilya to prevent market chaos-

• Panyadhyaksha : This official monitored price determination of commodities and their quality and kept an eye on activities of traders. 
• Shulkadhyaksha : He was responsible for collecting duty and taxes from traders, branding commodities and weighing and sale of commodities. 
• Sansthadhyaksha : He penalized adultration and prevented it, punished sale of sub-standard articles and traders who weighed less. 
• Pautavadhyaksha : His main function was to issue weights and measures. 
• Antapala : 
• He monitored products coming in from abroad and going out of the state.

The following rules have been mentioned by Kautilya in relation to trade

1. The sale of items produced in the state should be done at a fixed location. 

2. The sale of items produced in foreign countries should be done at different places at the same price. 

3. He has prohibited exports of arms, horses and food, etc. and imports of these items should be free of charge and tax-free. 

4. Kautilya also determined the profits gained from the business. 

5. Through them, state business has been given priority in the interest of the public. 

6. Prices of commodities should be determined by Panyadhyaksha and Sansthadhyaksha in addition to demand and fulfillment.

According to Kautilya, the price of goods are influenced by the following elements 

1. Society 

2. Wages 

3. Transportation Expenses 

4. Rent

According to Kautilya, the sansthadhyaksha should look at the other elements, like if the – object is going to be spoiled, then it should be sold at any place at any cost.

The first indicator of the declining status of women during the Later Vedic Period, is education being replaced by marriage and the practice of child marriage. In the Later Vedic Period, since education for girls was stopped, so was the sacrament of upanayana (thread ceremony) which initiated them into the Gurukul. It was replaced with marriage (‘vivaha) and child marriage. Marriage now became the only sacrament (samskara) permissible for women.

The second indicator of the declining status of women during the Later Vedic Period is the practice of dowry. The birth of a daughter began to be looked down upon and there is evidence to suggest the beginning of the practice of dowry.

These three departments are- external, intermediate and hospitality.

Status of women: The status of women deteriorated in Medieval India. Invasions from the Central Asian region along with zealous Brahmanical iron laws were the main cause for this degradation. Freedom of women was curtailed; knowledge of the scriptures and literacy was denied to them and her status was reduced to being dependent on men throughout her lifetime.

Nature of education: Education during the Medieval Period is centered on the Quran. The Prophet Mohammed exhorts all people of faith to acquire knowledge. Unlike the previous systems of learning, there was no requirement for being through with Vedic schools nor renunciation of the world. The Islamic system of education is open to all followers of the faith irrespective of one’s status.