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During spermatogenesis among males, two types of gametes are produced. 50% of the total sperm produced carry the X-chromosome and the rest 50 per cent has Y-chromosome besides the autosomes. In case the ovum fertilises with a sperm carrying X-chromosome the zygote develops into a female (XX) and the fertilisation of ovum with Y-chromosome carrying sperm results into a male offspring. Hence the genetic makeup of the sperm that determines the sex of the child.

Until the 18^th century, the Naduvazhi Swaroopams continued without much change. By the second half of the 18^th century is Sultans of Mysore, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan led military campaigns which created frenzy among the Naduvahis of northern Kerala. Nediyiruppu, Kola and other smaller Swaroopams quickly came under the Mysore Sultans. Fearing the attack from Mysore Sultans many Naduvazhis and Desavazhis fled to Venado. The Perumpadappu Swaroopam of Kochi soon accepted the suzerainty of the Mysore Sultans. Only Travancore resisted the attacks.

It was during this period that Kerala was divided into three regions namely Travancore, Kochi, and Malabar. By the close of the 18 century, the East India Company defeated Tipu Sultan. As a result of this, the Malabar region which was under Tipu Sultan came completely under the British rule. With this, the independent rule of the Naduvazhis of Malabar came to an end. Travancore and Kochi continued to be princely states.

• Samkshepavedartham
• Puthan Pana by Arnos Pathiri
• Varthamanapusthakam of Paremakkal Thoma Kathanar.

1. Warm currents 

2. Cold currents

• Kodungalloor
• Kozhikode
• Madayi

• Desamaryada
• Thozhilmaryada
• Swaroopa maryada
• Shudramaryada
• Jathimaryada

During the period of Perumals, a centralized rule came into being in Kerala. By the 12^th century, the Perumal rule came to an end. The Nadus became independent. The positions of power that developed in the Nadus were known as Naduvazhi Swaroopams. Until the 18^th century, the Naduvazhi Swaroopams continued without much change.

• Mohiniyattam
• Ottanthullal
• Padayani
• Mangamkali
• Parichamuttukali
• Chakyarkoothu
• Kathakali
• Theyyam
• Oppana
• Duffmuttu
• Koodiyattam
• Chavittunatakam

Answer is Manipravalam

The descendants of those who were engaged in a particular occupation followed the same occupation. People engaged in the same occupation evolved into one caste. The Adiyalars who used to farm during the medieval times occupied the lowest rung in the caste hierarchy whereas the Brahmins were at the top.

Based on the family occupation, all other castes came in between these two categories. On the basis of the caste, the concept of purity and impurity sprang up. By the beginning of the 19^th century, the population of Malabar, Kochi, and Travancore were officially categorized on the basis of caste. Subsequently, caste came to be decided on the basis of birth irrespective of the occupation.

The centres where the vedas were taught in the medieval Kerala were known as ‘Salas’

• People engaged in agriculture and the making of agricultural equipment.
• People involved in handicrafts and the making of metal types of equipment.
• People engaged in trade.
• People involved in weaving and oil production.
• People involved in temple rituals.
• Officials connected to the Naduvazhi Swaroopams.

Regional Trade:

Chanthas and Angadies were major regional trade centers. Commodities used daily such as paddy, rice, vegetables, betal nut, salt, fish, etc, were the major items exchanged.

Long-distance Trade:

Long-distance trade was mainly with Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orrisa. Tamil Brahmins and Chettis were the main traders. Rice, Chilli, Cotton, other cloth materials, silk, and horses were brought to Kerala. Black pepper and other spices were taken from here.

Foreign Trade:

The arabs, Chinese, Europeans, etc. were the main foreign traders. Black pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon, other spices, coconut, etc. were taken from here. Gold, copper, silver, china clay pottery, silk, etc. were brought to Kerala.

• Though the volcanic eruptions are threats to human life. The regions where it occurs are useful to man.
• These areas are rich in minerals. The Black soil that formed as a result of volcanic eruption is very suitable for cotton cultivation.
• The hot springs that are found on volcanic mountains are supposed to have healing properties.
• Volcanic ash is a good manure.
• Geysers are formed in many volcanic regions.
• These places have been developed as tourist spots. They are known as spas.

The crust, together with the upper part of the mantle is known as the Lithosphere. The portions of the Lithosphere which are several thousand kilometers wide and roughly 100 kilometers thick enable to exist the life on the earth. Lithosphere exists like a broken eggshell. It consists of 7 major plates and about a dozen of minor plates.

• The crust, which is the outermost layer of the earth is solid.
• The crust, together with the upper part of the mantle, is the lithosphere.
• The lithosphere exists as several fragments just like the broken shell of an egg.
• Compared to the thickness of the portion from the crust to the inner core, the lithosphere is very thin.
• The portions of the lithosphere which are several thousand kilometers wide and roughly, 100 kilometers thick are called lithospheric plates.
• Whether big or small, each plate contains oceanic as well as continental areas.

1. Pacific plate

2. Australian plate 

3. North American plate 

4. South American plate 

5. Eurasian plate 

6. African plate 

7. Antarctic plate

Ocean trenches are developed in subduction zones.

Eg. The Challenger Deep in the Pacific Ocean.

Major plates:

1. Pacific 

4. Eurasian 

6. African

Minor plates:

2. Cocos 

3. Arabian 

5. Scotia

The plates move at the speed of 2 to 12 cms in a year.

Following Europeans arrived at India:

• Portuguese: Vasco-da-Gama a Portuguese sailor arrived at India first. He discovered the new sea route to India. Within 100 years they took control over Diu, Daman, Goa, Cochin, Malacca etc.
• Dutch: Inspired by the Portuguese success in trade, the Dutch and the Danish arrived in India for trade.
• British: The English traders established the East India Company to trade with India.
• In 1600 Queen Elizabeth gave them permission to carry out trade with the eastern countries.
• Their first ship arrived at Surat under the ‘ leadership of Captain Hawkins.
• Due to dominance and opposition of Portuguese they were not allowed to establish their trade there.
• Finally they got the permission from Mughal emperor Jahangir and thus they established their first trading centre of Surat.
• Due to strong presence of the Marathas in this region, the Company sensed danger to its existence and hence moved towards the south and east directions where they set up their centres in Machlipattanam, Saint George and Fort William. Mumbai became their headquarter.
• The French East India Company arrived in India for trade in 1668 and eventually set up their trade centers in Mahe, Karickal, Pondicherry, Chandranagar, Machlipattanam, etc.

• Volcanoes
• Plateaus
• Fold mountains

Boston Newsletter, published in 1704.

• Fold Mountains
• Seafloor
• Ocean Trenches
• Oceanic Mountain Ranges

Following are the responsible reasons for the Battle of Plassey:

1. Siraj-ud-Daula who was impulsive by nature was ruling over Bengal.
2. He had some opponents in his state.
3. During this period under the pretext of security reasons, British built a fortress around the trade centre in Calcutta (Kolkata) without taking the permission of the Nawab.
4. Nawab destroyed it.
5. When this news reached Madras, a small army under the Company reached Bengal under the leadership of Robert Clive.
6. But Clive realized that it was not easy to defeat the Nawab’s army.
7. He planned a conspiracy to defeat the Nawab. Mir Jafar, the Commander-in-Chief of Nawab and Seth Amir chand joined him.
8. Finally a war was declared at a ground near a village named Plassey.
9. In this war, Siraj-ud-Daula was defeated. Due to Clive’s treachery the Battle ended in just half of a day.
10. Company got freehold over 24 Parganas and Mir Jafar became the Nawab of Bengal.
11. Thus, the foundation of British rule in India was laid with the Battle of Plassey in 1757.

1. In 18th Century, the English and the French were constantly busy establishing their rule in the entire world and conquering more territories.

2. Between 1746 and 1763, there were three Carnatic wars between French East India Company and the British East India Company

3. In these wars the French East India lost, thus, making easy, the expansion of the British East India Company.

They are a great source for studying the history of Kerala of the Middle Ages. These are the collections of documents by which temples and dynasties transferred landed properties.

To establish one’s ownership of a property, only these documents were available.

The following are the most important them:

1. Mdthilakom Granthavari (Padmanabha Swami Temple)

2. Perumpadappu Granthavari (Kochi)

3. Kozhikodan Granthavari (Zamorins).

4. Vanjeri Granthavari

5. Koodali Granthavari

The Portuguese finished the monopoly that Arabs had in the Malabar Trade. By bringing Cartaz system they established their monopoly of sea trade, They got into trade agreements with the rulers of Kozhikode, Kannur, Kochi, and Kollam.

Seven-year war was fought between England and France from 1757 to 1763 AD.

• Continental system, 
• Insult of pope.

Napoleon Bonaparte.

Alfred Wegener put the idea of continental drift.

England won the seven-year war.

Rhine Confederation.

The main reasons for Napoleon’s decline were the following : (i) Continental war, (ii) continental system, (iii) Pope’s insult, (iv) campaign against Russia, (v) decay of national character (vi) England’s strong position and superior naval power, (vii) decline of nationalistic feelings, (viii) continuous occurrence of wars, (ix) flaw in character, (x) favouritism towards relatives and family, (xi) autocratic regime.

The portions of the Lithosphere, which are several thousand Kilometres wide and roughly 100 Kilometres thick are called Lithospheric plates.

(a) Divergent margin: Plates move apart from each other.

(b) Convergent margin: Plates move towards each other.

(c) Transform margin (sheer margins): Plates slide past each other

The major organisations that contributed towards Italy’s unification were the following :

• Carbonneirri, 
• Young Italy

(i) Carbonneirri organisation : Secret organisations were formed at many places is Italy. Carbonneirri was a major organisation among these. It was founded in Naples in 1810. 

This organistion had these goals :

(a) to derive the foreigners out of Italy 

(b) to unify Italy as an integrated nation 

(c) to establish a republic in Italy 

(d) to ensure that the struggle for independence be carried out only by Italians.

Napoleon made many significant reforms in France, among which, the formulation of the law code was the major one. Napoleon constituted a committee of four law experts and attempted to formulate the laws of France. He abrogated all outdated and irrelevant laws. This law code m^de in 1804 was called the ‘Napoleonic code’. It included five types of laws : (i) Civil code, (ii) Civil jurisprudence code, (iii) Penal code, (iv) Criminal procedure code, (v) Commercial code. This code did not discriminate on the basis of social, political or religious bias, and on the contrary, importance was given to equality, religion, tolerance, morality, joint family system, discipline, patriotism, individual right to property, human rights etc. while making these laws. This code made on the basis of common sense and experience, is considered to be a great contribution of Napoleon.

Marthanda Varma conducted a series of wars against the Dutch. The Dutch made extensive preparations to fight with Marthanda Varma. A Dutch Army with cannons (huge guns) left Sri Lanka heading for Travancore. They landed at Colachel. They attacked arid captured places up to Kotar. Then the army moved to the fort of Marthanda Varma at Kaikalam. On 10 August 1741, the armies of the Dutch and Marthada Varma fought bitterly. The Dutch were routed. Many were taker) prisoners including Captain De Lannoy. Later he became the trainer, The Big Captain’, of Marthanda Varma’s army.

• The Colachel War did a lot of harm to the Dutch. It prevented their further growth and advancement. 
• This was the first war in which a foreign army was defeated by a native king.

In 1764, import of foreign liquor was banned in America, and tax was imposed on buying molasses from England and other countries. Molasses was a byproduct of sugar industry which was used to make alcohol. The American traders bought molasses or sugar from the French or Dutch colonies which was cheaper, and no duty was imposed on them. Due to this law, the American traders had to forcibly buy molasses or sugar from England at higher rates, since now they could not import them from other countries. The manufacturers of molasses in England profited from this. British ships were ordered to check smuggling of molasses or sugar across seas. The act was also implemented strictly. Intense anger arose in America agaisnt this law.

Sanketham was another center of political power in Kerala. The Sankethams of temples and Brahmins were very famous. They are areas with semi-autonomous rule. In a Sanketham there would be one Brahmin temple and some villages around it. 

There were two types of Sankethams.

(a) Those founded by landowning Brahmins,

(b) Those founded by rulers to show their love and veneration for some deities or Brahmins.

Sankethams had a divine quality about them. Because of that, they were protected from wars and riots. Many Sankethams were administered by a Committee of Brahmins. These Committees were called Yogams.

In the Middle Ages in many parts of Kerala, Sankethams were in existence. K.P. Padmanabha Menon seems them as independent republics free from the control of the king. But the Vancheri Granthavari says that Sanketham was dependent on the nearby chiefs.

For the formation of the Yogam, and for law and order problems they relied on the chiefs. The property of Sanketam was protected by the local army. Such an army was called ‘Changatam’. In return for their services, they were given ‘kavalpanam’ (protection money), usually in the form of a share of the produce.

The spread of Swaroopam and Sanketam led to the growth of different kinds of landowning rights. It also caused the growth of agriculture – both cash crops and food crops. It also brought changes in the agricultural relations in places controlled bylaws relating to Jati Systems.

Swaroopams were regions which enjoyed autonomy. They were controlled by strong matriarchal families. These big matriarchal families had occupied huge areas of land. Over these areas, the families had political and judicial authority. They were political power centers in those days.

 In  1764  AD .

Swaroopam was a political center of the 12 century Kerala. It maintained a small army. They were called Ayirathavar, Pathinayirathavar, Padamalanayar and so on. Swaroopams had household deities.

There was something called ‘ariyittuvazhcha’. The eldest member of the family became the Moopan with elaborate rituals. The elevation to this status is called ariyittuvazhcha. It was also called ‘Hiranyagarbham’. During this time the rulers took some fancy titles. SwaroopamlTilid their own land. Their main income was from land. They also had political power over areas under their jurisdiction.

There were many groups of people working with temple matters.

Here are the most important of them:

1. Sabhayar – They were members of the Sabha and were the most powerful Brahmins.

2. Bhattas and Chattirs – the Brahmin scholars and students connected with the temple salas.

3. Tantrikal - They were the Santiadikal

There were also non-Brahmins working in the temples.

These are the important ones:

1. Pothuval – General Secretary of the Temple

2. Akapothuval – In-charge of the internal matters of the temple.

3. Purapothuval – In-charge of the external matters of the temple

4. Variam – Committee for the supervision of temple work; Thottavariam means Committee supervising the garden.

5. Kottikal – Those who beat the chenda (tom-toms, or drums).

6. Nanka/Nakachi – Female Dancers

7. Chakyars - Male dancers

8. Adikkumavar - Sweepers

9. Wakidumavar - Distribute fire wood

Saktan Thampuran

We don’t have any clear records about the laws existing in the Perumal period. But we have some indications about the code of conduct existing then. This code of conduct is called ‘kaccam’. Temples and villages followed it. The most important kaccam was Moozhikkala Kaccam. Then there were four regional Systems known as Kadankat Kaccam, Thavaranur Kaccam, Sankaramangalathu kaccam, and Kaithavarathu Kaccam. The punishments for breaking the ‘kaccam’ are shown. They include ostracism, ousting from positions, confiscation of property and ostracising people from social and political matters.

1) In diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded with four other carbon atoms. 

2) So, the four outermost electrons of a carbon atom are engaged or trapped in the covalent bonds, having no free electrons making it a bad conductor of electricity.

The pH value of alkaline medium is above 7.