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The features of Non-Aligned Countries are as given below. 

1. Economic Backwardness: Non-Aligned Countries are economically backward. These countries have primitive Agriculture and weak industries. Hence the national production and per capita income of these countries are very low. 

2. Dependence on others: Non-Aligned Countries are too backward in the field of Science, Technology and Military and are dependent on developed countries for assistance. 

3. Rural Structure: Non-Aligned Countries comprise of more number of villages. Many villages are deprived of basic necessities. These countries are lagging behind since they are far away from urbanization. 

4. Over population: Population is increasing because of poverty, illiteracy, superstitions etc., The Governments have failed in checking the growth of population. Programmes relating to population control introduced by the Governments have not realised the expected level of exposure and enlightenment, due to the disinterest of the people and improper strategies. Increasing population is the cause of economic backwardness.

5. Poverty and Hunger: Poverty is a serious problem among the Non-Aligned Countries. There is a shortage of food grains in these countries. They are dependent on the developed countries for food grains. Majority of Africa lives in poverty. Non-Aligned countries are victims of poverty because of natural calamities, migration, internal clashes, unscientific utilization of natural resources etc. countries like Nigeria, Somalia, Uganda, Haiti, Angola, and Ethiopia are unable to provide nutritious food.

6. Spread of Epidemics: Negligence of Health is evident in the Non-Aligned Countries. Hence epidemics are spreading in these countries. There is scarcity of health services. The most dreaded disease AIDS is on the rise in these countries. 

7. Illiteracy: The Educational development policies of Non-Aligned Countries have failed. The number of illiterates has increased. Literacy is very low in the African countries and that among women is almost negligible. Asian countries are only slightly better in this respect.

8. Burden of Debt: Most of the Non-Aligned Countries are reeling under foreign debt. It is inevitable for them to borrow loans from world economic institutions for their internal development plans. They have been forced to borrow new loans to repay the old loans and interests on them. This has a spiralling effect and these countries go bankrupt.

9. Migration: From most of the third world countries, especially Africa, people move out to safer places in the developed countries for better employment, food and self protection. This depletes the countries’effective work force.

10. Water scarcity, unstable Governments and lack of modern military force are common in Non-Aligned countries.

The causes of the Second World War are: 

1. Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles 1919 was too severe, and’it humiliated the Germans. The Allied Powers treated Germany as they liked and the Germans could not tolerate it any longer. The entire responsibility for the losses of the First World War was put on Germany. The Treaty itself was based on revenge. Germany was waiting for a chance to avenge its humiliation and the seeds for another war were sown by this treaty.

2. Expansionist Policy of Japan and Italy: Japan and Italy were not satisfied with the ‘Peace Settlement’. They did not get a proper share of the war spoils. Later, these were the countries, hit hard, as they had limited sources. So, with a view to solve their economic problems, they turned to the policy of aggression and expansion. Japan separated from Allied powers and joined Germany. It wanted to liberate Asia from the western yoke.

3. Rise of Dictators: The rise of dictatorships in Italy under Benito Mussolini, Germany under Adolf Hitler and Japan under the Government of Tojo was another cause for the war. They glorified the war. Mussolini advocated the martial virtues of Italians and reviving the glories of old Roman Empire. Hitler spoke of the Aryan supremacy and wanted rearmament, revenge and German domination. Japan wanted its own Empire and supremacy. In Russia, Stalin established a totalitarian dictatorship.

4. Colonial and Commercial Rivalry: Another cause for the war was the colonial and commercial rivalry. It was a sort of Economic Nationalism. It was a struggle for raw materials, markets for their products and colonies for their excess population. After the First World War, Italy, Germany and Japan were not satisfied. All these countries were pogr in natural resources.

5. Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations became too weak and incompetent. The league did not have its own army. It was dominated by few countries like England and France. U.S.A remained out of the league. As a result, the League totally failed in preserving peace in Europe.

6. Immediate cause: On 1st September 1939, Hitler invaded Poland which became the immediate cause for the Second World War. Poland was an ally of England and France. Hence Britain and France declared war on Germany.

The results of the Second World War are: 

1. The Second World War was the most destructive of all the wars fought until then. About 25 million people were killed and 50 Million were disabled. Millions of people later died of starvation and diseases. There was a large scale destruction of houses, industries and communication and transport systems. The destruction of agricultural land led to shortage I of food. After the war, most of the countries faced the problems of post war reconstructions.

2. The World War II ended the dictatorships in Italy and Germany. Italy was declared a Republic under Badogli, and Germany was divided into four zones under U.S.A., U.S.S.R., Britain and France. A Tribunal was set up at Nuremberg to conduct trials of the leading Nazis. Japan gave up all its rights on China. Japan was occupied by the I Allied Powers.( U.S.A) 

3. European domination of the world ended after this war. After the Second World War, U.S.A, and U.S.S.R emerged as two super powers. The mutual distrust between U.S.A and U.S.S.R increased after the war. This led to what is known as the ‘Cold War’.

4. The rivalry of these two super powers had been the most important feature of international relations since 1945. As a result, world peace was constantly under threat. 

5. The World War resulted in the victory of the principle of Nationalism and the liquidation of Colonialism. The colonial Empires of the European powers in Asia, Africa and Latin America came to an end. India, Ceylon, Indonesia and other countries became independent after the war. 

6. The Jews had become homeless during the Nazi regime in Germany. About six Million Jews perished in the concentration camps. After the war, with the help of U.S.A., a new home land (Israel) for the Jews was created in 1948. 

7. Japan experienced the disastrous effects of atomic weapons. Its entire atmosphere became poisonous. Most of the new born children suffered from serve deformities.

8. The most important result of the World War Second was the birth of United Nations Organization with the object of preventing further wars and maintaining peace in future,

The punitive and oppressive laws passed by the British Parliament and the heavy taxes were disapproved by the Colonists. Alarmed by the repressive policy of the British, all the Colonies united together in their opposition. On 5^th September 1774, delegates of 12 Colonies except Georgia met at Philadelphia to decide the future plan of action. This is known as the First Continental (Philadelphia) Congress.

The Congress drew up a ‘Declaration of rights’ and sent a petition to George III requesting him to intervene and redress their grievances. But George- III turned a deaf ear to their plea and branded the members of the Congress as revolutionaries. Moreover, he ordered his troops to crush them.

This action of the King was not tolerated by the Colonists. The Congress appointed George Washington as the Commander in Chief of the Colonial army to fight the British troops and on 4*h July 1776 proclaimed their Independence from the control of England. A Declaration of Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson was unanimously adopted by the Colonies. Infuriated with the colonist’s attitude, Britain declared war on America. In the early stages of the war, the British had an upper hand. Americans lost the Bunker Hill battle but won at Trenton and Prinistine.

Washington crushed the British in the battle of Saratoga and on 17^th October 1777 the British Commander-in-Chief surrendered to him. This was the turning point in the war. The war continued and Lord Cornwallis and the British army under him were routed at York Town in 1781. The war came to an end with the. Treaty of Paris in 1783. England recognized the Independence of the 13 Colonies. 4^th of July was a great day of Americans and is their Independence day.

(a) Babylonia: It is in present Iraq. It was the capital of Mesopotamian Civilization. The famous law-giver Hammurabi ruled from here. Nebuchadnezzar built the ‘ Hanging Gardens’, which was one of the Wonders of the Ancient World. 

(b) Rome: It is the capital of Italy. It was also the capital of the Roman Empire. Vatican City in Rome is the centre of Pope, who is the religious head of the Catholics. According to a Roman legend, Rome was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus in 8^th century B.C.E. According to another version the name is derived from the Greek word Rome which means ‘strength’. 

(c) Mecca: It is in Saudi Arabia. Prophet Mohammad, the founder of Islam was born here. It is regarded as the holiest city of Islam.

(d) Cape of Good Hope: It is at the southern tip of South Africa. Bartholomew Diaz called it ‘Cape of Storms’. Later, Vasco-daGama renamed it as ‘Cape of Good Hope’ under the direction of King John of Portugal, since it gave hope for further explorations to reach India.

(e) London: It is the capital of U.K located on the banks of the river Thames. It was the main centre of Industrial Revolution. It is the famous centre of learning.

According to one origin, London meant the place belonging to a man called ‘Londinos’. As per another view, it is derived from the word ‘Lowonida’ meaning ‘river too wide to ford’ referring to river Thames, which flows through London.

(f) Nagasaki: It is in Japan. Nagasaki means ‘Long Cape’. On 9^th August 1945, US Air force dropped the second Atomic bomb called ‘Fat Man’ on Nagasaki. As a result of this, more than 70,000 people died. Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in 16th Century.

(g) Moscow: It is the capital city of Russia, located on the banks of river Moskva and named after the river. It was one of the centres of Russian Revolution of 1917 and was made the capital of USSR.

(h) Berlin: It is the present capital city of Germany. It is located on the banks of River Spree. After World War II, it was divided into East and West Berlin and a dividing wall was built. In 1990, both East and West Germanys were reunited and the Berlin wall was demolished.

The study of coins is called as Numismatics.

He was a great Ruler and a wise Statesman. After several years of political turmoil, Rome enjoyed more than three decades of peace. He not only built an Empire but also was a great patron of Art and Literature. His reign is called as the ‘Golden Age’ in the history of Rome. Julius Caesar’s assassination by the Brutus led Liberators, caused great political and social turmoil in Rome. The power passed into the hands of Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian who formed the ‘Second Triumvirate’. The conspirators were defeated in the battle of Philippi and Brutus and Cassius were killed.

The Triumvirate divided the Empire amongst themselves- Lepidus was in charge of Africa, Antony ruled in the Eastern Province and Octavian remained in Italy and controlled Gaul (France and Belgium). However, the relationship between Octavian and Antony deteriorated. Lepidus was forced to retire (after betraying Octavian in Sicily). Antony was living in Egypt and in the battle of ‘Actium’ was defeated by Octavian.With the conquest of Egypt, anew Era began for Romans. By 27 BCE, Octavian was the sole Roman leader.

His leadership brought the Zenith to Roman civilization that lasted for two centuries. He ruled the Roman Empire for 44 years with the titles ‘Augustus’, ‘Imperator’ and ‘Princeps’. The Government established by him was known as the ‘Principate’- ‘Government by the Princeps – The first citizen. 

Augustus introduced many reforms which had far reaching consequences in Rome. He gave, ‘A centre to the System, a Chief to the Civil service, a Head to the Army, a Sovereign to the Subjects, a Protector to the Provinces and Peace to the Empire’.

He recognized the Governments of the conquered territories, stopped plunder and corruption and strengthened law and order. New Courts, and Postal Services were established. Augustus continued the calendar promoted by Julius Caesar and the month ‘August’ is named after him. The Emperor kept the poor people happy by supplying food grains. He spent money lavishly on the construction of public buildings, roads, bridges, amphitheatres and fountains. 

The most important Amphitheatre was the Coliseum built at Rome. This could accommodate about 50000 people. Due to the construction of well paved inter linking system of roads, Rome became the nerve centre of trade and commerce in the Mediterranean world.

He maintained diplomatic and commercial contacts with a number of countries including India and China. There were the Generals Agrippa and Maecenas, and Writers, Poets and Historians like Livy, Horace, Virgil, Ovid, Pliny and Tacitus in his time. Jesus Christ was born during his reign. 

Augustan age is popularly called as ‘Golden Age’ in the history of Rome. It was known for peace and prosperity. This period is known as ‘Pax Romana’ or Roman peace. He gave the idea of the ‘World State’. His imperial system lasted for nearly 500 years and saved the great treasures of Greco-Roman civilization.

The punitive and oppressive laws passed by the British Parliament and the heavy taxes were disapproved by the Colonists. Alarmed by the repressive policy of the British, all the Colonies united together in their opposition. On 5^th September 1774, delegates of 12 Colonies except Georgia met at Philadelphia to decide the future plan of action. This is known as the First Continental (Philadelphia) Congress. The Congress drew up a ‘Declaration of rights’ and sent a petition to George III requesting him to intervene and redress their grievances. But George- III turned a deaf ear to their plea and branded the members of the Congress as revolutionaries. Moreover, he ordered his troops to crush them.

This action of the King was not tolerated by the Colonists. The Congress appointed George Washington as the Commander in Chief of the Colonial army to fight the British troops and on 4^th July 1776 proclaimed their Independence from the control of England. A Declaration of Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson was unanimously adopted by the Colonies. Infuriated with the colonist’s attitude, Britain declared war on America. In the early stages of the war, the British had an upper hand. Americans lost the Bunker Hill battle but won at Trenton and Prinistine. Washington crushed the British in the battle of Saratoga and on 17^th October 1777 the British Commander-in-Chief surrendered to him. This was the turning point in the war. The war continued and Lord Cornwallis and the British army under him were routed at York Town in 1781. The war came to an end with the. Treaty of Paris in 1783. England recognized the Independence of the 13 Colonies. 4^th of July was a great day of Americans and is their Independence day.

During World War II, Soviet Union and the Western powers consisting of U.K. France and USA fought together against Germany and its allies. But just after the War, distrust and suspicion loomed over Soviet Union and the Western powers.

1. Russia’s refusal to evacuate from Iran: After World War II, Britain and USA withdrew their forces from Iran, but the Soviet Union refused to do so. Finally, only after the UN intervention  Russia withdrew its forces. It embittered the relations between the Western Powers and Soviet Union.

2. Sovietization of Eastern Europe: Soviet Union was accused of not honouring the pledges of the Yalta and the Balkan agreements. At Yalta, the Western powers recognized the military authority of Russia over Eastern and Central Europe. But it was agreed that, in all the liberated countries of Europe, democratic institutions would be established and free elections be held. But communist supported Governments were established in the entire Balkan region through the intervention of Russia. Western powers resented this and united to check the spread of communism and Russian influence.

3. Soviet influence in Greece: In 1944, Greece secured its independence from the Nazi rule with the support of Britain. When the German forces left Greece, the British entered Greece. According to a treaty concluded between Soviet Union and British, Russia recognized the British sphere of influence in Greece. At the same time there was a clash between the communists and royalists in Greece. Soviet Union was believed to be instigating a communist revolution in Greece. Both the British and the Greek Governments sought the support of America, and President Truman announced both military and economic assistance to Greece.

4. Soviet influence in Turkey: Just after World War II, Soviet Union exerted pressure on Turkey to cede some of its territories. But Turkey refused to oblige and secured American assistance. USA followed the policy of defending Turkey and Greece against the possible attack of the Soviet Union. U.S .Congress approved to extend economic and military aid to Turkey.

5. Problems relating to Germany: Soviet Union had suffered heavily during World War II. At the Yalta conference Stalin demanded 10,000 million dollars as reparations from Germany. After the war, Soviet Union destroyed German Industries and transferred costly German machines to Russia, because of which the German economy was shattered. Britain and America had to give huge economic aid to reconstruct the German economy.

6. The secrecy of the Atom Bomb: USA kept the technology of the atom bomb a secret from USSR, though Soviet Union was an ally of United States during the war. Stalin considered it as a betrayal of trust and confidence in Russia. Moreover Soviet Union was also concerned about its own security.

7. Communist activities in the USA: Soviet Union began to encourage communist activities and espionage in United States of America. In 1945, it was discovered by the American strategic services that some of the secret documents had been spuriously passed on to the communist Agency.

Nile River flowing northward has formed the most fertile plains of 15-20 kms on either side of it. Because of Nile, plenty of food, fodder and uninterrupted supply of water was possible. The food security provided sufficient leisure for the growth of civilization. But for the Nile, Egyptian civilization would not have developed. Therefore Egypt is called ‘The Gift of Nile’.

The early people settled into villages, which developed into cities and later City States were formed. They were ruled by Kings in this pre- dynastic period. The inter City- State quarrels made way to the birth of Kingdoms. About 30 dynasties have ruled Egypt for more than 3000 years but none could survive for more than 6-7 generations.

The rule of dynasties can be divided into 3 parts: The Period of Old Kingdom, the Period of . Middle Kingdom and the Period of New Kingdom. Old Kingdom is also known as the Period of Pyramids. The Pharaohs of this period were very strong. They had a good administrative system. There was a council of elders to advise the King, which was not binding on him. Pharaohs appointed Vizirs, the Prime Ministers who headed the Administration, Justice and Treasury.

The Local officers maintained the records and the accounts. Middle Kingdom is known as the Period of Feudal Lords. During this period, Lords became more powerful than the Pharaohs. It led to many internal wars and Anarchy. During the new Kingdom, the Kings raised powerful armies and built a very strong Empire and conquered new territories and expanded the Empire.

Egypt had a well organised society. There were three strata of people. The Upper class included the Royal family, Priests, Nobles and Military Officers who led a life of comfort and luxury. The Middle class included Physicians, Scribes, Craftsmen, Merchants and Farmers. Slaves formed the Lower class or the last strata of the society and lived a very hard and toiling life. It was an agrarian economy. They built Canals and Shadoofs for efficient irrigation purpose. They redesigned the hoe and fixed it to the yoke of oxen and transformed the hoe culture into plough culture for better yield.

They developed a variety of crafts and manufacturing. Brass, bronze, gold and iron were the metals used for making tools, utensils, ornaments and weapons. They had developed both internal and external trade. They had perfected the art of ship building to navigate the seas and smaller boats and vessels to sail the rivers. Collection of taxes on agriculturists, traders and craftsmen were introduced to augment the state’s income.

Egyptians developed pictographic writing called Hieroglyphics. These signs represented both sounds and some complete words. Papyrus was used for writing. They had a fair knowledge of Medicine, Geometry, Calendars, Astronomy and Mathematics. The construction of huge Pyramids and the Sphinx are fine examples of their outstanding technical knowledge and sound administrative ability. They had invented the Shadow clock to mark the time of the day. Their education was controlled by the State.

Gandhiji an Era-1920 to 1947: The Montague – Chelmsford reforms (1919) and subsequent events like the Rowlatt Act, the Jalian Walabagh tragedy made Gandhiji to plunge into the National movement. He advocated the policy of Satyagraha which was Non-violent and Non-Cooperation to the British Government.

1. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22) : A special session of the Congress was held at Calcutta in September 1920. Gandhiji proposed the Non-Cooperation Movement. His plan of launching a nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement was accepted by the session. The response of the people to the cal I was unprecedented. Students and teachers came out of Schools and Colleges and national Institutions like Kashi Vidyapeetlia, Jamiya Miliya Islamiya, etc., also joined the movement.

Members of the council tendered their resignations. Congress took some constructive measures and Hindu – Muslim unity was stressed. Foreign goods were boycotted and were collected and burnt at public places. This created nationalistic awareness among people, who began, to use ‘Swadeshi’ and wearing khadi became a symbol of national pride.

2. The Chowri – Chowra incident: 5^th February 1922: Non-Cooperation Movement shook the foundation of the British Empire in India. Gandhiji toured the whole country to motivate people. The Viceroy, Lord Curzon took steps to curb the movement. Non Cooperation participants along with Gandhiji were sent to prison.

A violent mob at Ghowri Chowra (U.P.) set fire to the police station on 5^th Feb 1922. In this incident, 22 policemen were killed. Immediately Gandhiji called off the movement.

3. The Swaraj Party – 1923: Congress leaders like C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru were dissatisfied about the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement and they wanted to end the boycott to the legislature and wanted to contest elections. But Congress rejected the proposal to contest elections So, C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru founded the ‘Swaraj Party’. Their aim was to achieve Independence by radical but constitutional methods.

4. Simon Commission in 1927: The British Government appointed the Simon Commission to placate the agitating Indians and make recommendations for further reforms. As the Commission did not have any Indian representative in it, it was boycotted by the Congress. The Congress organised a black flag demonstration with the slogan ‘Simon go back’.

5. Nehru Report and Poorna Swaraj (1929): The British challenged the Indians to provide an alternative proposal acceptable to all the & political parties. The All Parties Conference took up the challenge and appointed a committee under Motilal Nehru. The Committee submitted its report in 1928.

Differences arose with regard to the communal representation between parties like the Muslim League, the Hindu Maha Sabha, and the Sikhs. Communalists also were unhappy with the Nehru report, and the British ignored the same.

At the Indian National Congress session held at Lahore in December 1929 presided by Jawaharlal Nehru, a resolution of complete Independence of India as its goal (Poorna Swaraj) was adopted. It announced the celebration of 26th January 1930 as the Independence day and authorised Gandhiji to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.

6. Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930: In the 1929 Lahore Congress session, it was – decided to start the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. In order to overthrow the British, many methods were adopted. Gandhiji placed 11 demands before the British and set 31^st January 1930 as the deadline to accept or reject the demands. Without any postivie response, the British nationalised the production of Salt.

Gandhiji started the Civil Disobedience Movement through the ‘Salt March or Dandi March’ on 12^th March 1930 from Sabarmati Ashram and reached Dandi on 5^th April 1930. On 6^th April 1930, Gandhiji and his followers made salt from the sea water, violating the salt laws.

The salt satyagraha was carried out throughout India. The Government took repressive measures. Gandhiji and many other leaders were put behind bars. Salt became a symbol of our National Pride.

7. The first Round Table Conference 1930-31: Muslim League, Hindu Maha Sabha, Liberals and the Princes of various States attended it. The conference could not achieve much without the participation of the Indian National Congress which had boycotted it. The British unconditionally released Gandhiji and the other members of the Congress working committee (CEC) from prison.

A pact was made between Gandhiji and Viceroy Lord Irwin. Irwin agreed to withdraw all repressive measures relating to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhiji demanded the formation of a responsible Government. The signing of the Gandhi – Irwin Pact also known as the ‘Delhi Pact’ was done on 14^th February 1931. Gandhiji on behalf of the Congress withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement.

8. Second Round Table Conference 1931: Gandhiji attended the second Round Table Conference at London as the sole representative of the Congress. The session soon got deadlocked on the question of the minorities. Separate electorates were being demanded by the Muslims and the oppressed classes. Gandhiji claimed the untouchables to be Hindus and not to be treated an minorities and no special electorates to be provided to them or to the Muslims.

The British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald announced separate electorates to the Muslims and the untouchables, which was called as the ‘Communal Award’. This resulted in serious differences between Gandhiji and Ambedkar This issue was finally settled amicably with the ‘Poona Pact’ signed between the two stalwarts in 1932.

9. 3^rd Round Table Conference 1932: This conference was held at London in 1932. Congress refused to participate in it and the conference failed. The only important result of the discussions of the Conference was the passing of the Government of India Act 1935. This Act provided for All India Federation and Provincial Governments. Gandhiji launched a movement with Ambedkar to eradicate untouchability from India.

10. Second World War and National Movement in 1939: The second world war broke out in 1939. India was dragged into the war without any consultation. The Congress refused any kind of cooperation. All the Congress Ministries resigned in 1939. Gandhiji launced individual Satyagraha against the British. The British tried to enlist the Indian support by creating differences between the Muslim League and the Congress.

Muslim League adopted the Pakistan resolution in 1940. Viceroy Linlithgow announced that India would get Dominion status and establishment of constitiuent Assembly after the war and requested the Indian public to support the British in the war.

11. Cripps Mission 1942: The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to negotiate with the Indian leaders. He proposed that Dominion status and an Interim Government of Indians to administer on all matters except defence, to be granted to India after the war. Gandhiji described Cripps’ offer as “a post-dated cheque of a drowning Bank”.

12. Quit India Movement in 1942: The All India Congress Committee met in Bombay and passed the Quit India resolution on 8^th August 1942. It was declared that the immediate ending of the British rule in India was an urgent necessity. Gandhiji gave the call of ‘Do or Die’ to Indians. The British Government arrested the Congress leaders including Gandhiji and people were stunned.

They did not know what to do next. As a result people took to violence. They attacked Police stations, Post offices, Railway stations, etc., They cut off telegraph and telephone wires and railway lines. They burnt Government buildings and Railway carriages were put on fire. The Government adopted strong measures of repression and more than 60,000 people were arrested. More than 1000 people died in the police and military firing.

13. The Cabinet Mission 1946: During his Prime Minister ship, Clement Atlee deputed a Commission to India in 1946. (Cripps, Lawrence and A.V. Alexander were its members) Its objective was to concede independence to India and transfer powers. The Cabinet Mission held discussions and rejected the creation of Pakistan

The Muslim League rejected it and Jinnali called for ‘Direct Action Day and insisted upon having Pakistan (Lekar rahenge Pakistan). This resulted in communal violences at many places, bloodshed, and killings. Aconstituent Assembly was constituted under the Chairmanship of Babu Rajendra Prasad on 9^th December 1946. The Congress under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru formed an interim Government.

14. Independence and Partition: (June 1947) British Prime Minister Clement Atlee entrusted to Lord Mountbatten (Viceroy) the job of transferring power. He tried to resolve the deadlock which existed between the Congress and the Muslim League. When he realised that it was impossible to patch up the differences, he made an announcement on 3^rd June 1947 regarding the partition of the country.

On the basis of Mountbatten’s declaration, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on 18^th July 1947. This Act came into effect on 15^th August 1947. This act divided the country into India and Pakistan. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of Independent India and Lord Mountbatten who was the last Viceroy became Independent India’s first Governor-General. Sardar Vailababhai Patel was instrumental in reorganizing and merging the Princely Indian States into the Indian Federation. The constitution was brought into effect on 26^th January 1950 and India became a Republic.

The causes of geographical exploration are as follows: 

1. Fall of Constantinople: The trade route between the East and the West was through Constantinople and when in 1453 A.D. the Ottoman Turks captured it, they closed the land route to the East and also indulged in looting the merchants. As the Europeans depended entirely upon the East for the supply of spices and other luxury goods, it necessitated them to discover a new trade route, possibly through the Sea.

2. The traveller’s accounts or romantic writings: The accounts of travellers, who ventured into the East, aroused the curiosity of the Europeans. Italian travellers like Nicola Polo and Marco Polo (1254-1324 A.D) were successful in reaching China. Marco Polo wrote a vivid account of his travels to Mongolia, India and China. Friar John of Plano Carpini, a Fransiscan Monk reached Mongolia and had written about the Mongols in the Thirteenth century. William Bubruquis and others in their accounts have narrated their thrilling experiences. Since then, the curiosity and spirit of adventure enabled the Europeans to reach far off lands not only by land but also by sea.

3. Demand for commodities: There was a great demand in Europe for Asian commodities like spices pepper, ginger, clove, cardamom, etc. Muslin, Silk,.Pearls, Ivory and Precious stones were also in demand. It was a lucrative trade. Europeans were eager to improve their standard of living by earning more. This was possible by enlarging commercial contacts with the Eastern countries. The discovery of new lands and sea routes opened them avenues for earning huge profits. Many adventurous sailors and traders too risked their lives to fulfill their ambitions.

4. Geographical knowledge: This also led to the discovery of new sea routes and lands. In the 14th century, travellers and sailors had the advantage of access to several books on travel, like ‘A Merchant’s Hand book’ by Francesco Balducci, and ‘Secrets of the Faithful Crusader’ by Marino Sanudo. Myths like earth being flat, seas filled with terrible monsters, the tropical portion of Africa being blazing hot and surrounded by boiling water etc., were proved false with the new knowledge on Geography. This made people less wary of travelling to these new places.

5. Spread of Christianity: Kings, Nobles and Missionaries were very enthusiastic to spread Christianity in the new lands. Hence the Kings of Spain and Portugal encouraged explorations and the Missionaries took up the cause to spread Christianity. 

6. Efforts of Prince Henry: The training school of Navigation started by Prince Henry of Portugal gave the necessary training to sailors, geographers, map makers, and ship builders. 

7. Other causes: The invention of printing press, mariner’s compass, new maps, and Establishment of Banks and Joint Stock Companies also encouraged the navigators. Patronage by Kings also went far in the field of geographical discoveries.

Results of the Geographical discoveries: 

The geographical discoveries had a great impact on the political, economic, social, religious and cultural history of the world. The circumnavigation of the earth by Magellan proved that, the earth is round.

Venice, Genoa, Florence, etc were important trading centres of Europe. But now, they lost their importance because of the emergence of new cities like London, Lisbon, Amsterdam etc., This was mainly due to the discovery of new trade routes.

The Kings sent missionaries into the explored territories to spread Christianity. Hence newly Christianity entered into Asia, Africa and America and became a world religion. The Geographical discoveries gave a large scope for the spread of Christian religion by converting the natives.

The explorations brought the support of the rich merchants and the middle classes to monarchy. This support enabled stable monarchies at England, Spain, France etc.

The Geographical discoveries ensured competition among the European nations. The competition was mainly to have trade contacts with the newly discovered lands and subsequently have trade Monopoly. They became aggressive and ruthless to realize these goals. Commercial revolution took place by promoting trade and industry. Commerce underwent a remarkable change as regards to quality, quantity and kind of goods carried, routes, newer markets and methods. Joint Stock Companies and Banks were established and insurance of ships and goods was introduced, to safeguard against losses.

Discovery of new lands encouraged Slave trading, Ship building, Banking and Commerce. It also helped Renaissance and Reformation. The discoveries increased men’s knowledge about the world and this in turn led to the expansion of their mind. Exposure to the new worlds, interaction with new people and new modes of life, dispelled the funny and blind notions of medieval ignorance. This gave a tremendous impact to the intellectual revolution introduced by Renaissance. .

As a result of these discoveries, Europe came in touch with the rest of the world and European culture spread to those lands. This contact helped them to enrich their knowledge. The discovery of new worlds offered good opportunity for the freedom loving people of different countries to migrate and improve their social, economic and political status. It encouraged scientific exploration and research and overall the living standards of people rose.

One of the ugliest effects of geographical discoveries was the birth of imperialism by the European powers. Europeans reached the coasts of the countries of Asia, Africa, America and Australia for establishing trade links. Eventually, they stayed there as masters and these countries were turned into colonies. 

India has played an important role in the formation of Non-Aligned Movement. Jawaharlal, Nehru, the Prime Minister of India is called the Architect of Non-Aligned Movement. His ‘Panchasheela’ formed the important principles of Non-Aligned Movement. India has not only coined the word‘Non-Aligned’, but has inspired others about it.

The following facts show the relationship between India and NAM. 

1. India has good relations with the other Non-Aligned countries. Nehru’s principles got world recognition in the Bandung conference, which officially declared the Non-Aligned policy.

2. The 7^th summit of Non-Aligned countries was held at Delhi and India’s Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi presided.over the conference. She said we should become a united voice in the international organizations. Disarmament, Economic development, technical help were some of the issues that were discussed in this summit. India insisted Israel to withdraw her troops from Palestine.

3. At the 8^th summit of Non-Aligned countries in Harare, the then Indian Prime Minister Rajeev Gandhi demanded the release of Nelson Mandela of South Africa. He also established the ‘African Fund’ to support the blacks who were fighting for their Rights and Freedom.

4. The 9^th summit of Non-Aligned countries was held at Belgrade the capital of Yugoslavia. In this summit, Rajeev Gandhi gave a call for establishing ‘Global Protection Fund’ for the protection of the Environment. 

5. At the 12^th and 13^th summits of Non-Aligned countries, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee gave a call to take a firm decision to combat international Terrorism. India also supported nuclear disarmament.

6. At the 14^th summit, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh spoke about international terrorism and nuclear disarmament. At the 15^th summit he brought to the notice of Non- Aligned countries, the Mumbai attacks and terrorism. 

7. At the 16^th summit held in Iran, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh advocated the need for international action against the spread of nuclear armaments and terrorism. He also gave a call to find a solution to the Syrian problem acceptable to all.

Art of painting: Chinese had developed wonderful painting. They painted on silk cloth, tomb walls, pots and papers. They believed that tomb painting were means to protect the dead and help their souls to go to heaven.

Sculpture: Chinese developed the art of casting bronze statues of animals and monsters. This art developed during Shangs and Chous. Buddhism influenced their sculpture and the statues of Bodhisatwa carved in stone are found in large numbers. The Terracotta army assembled in the tomb of the first Kin Emperor consists of life size images of more than 8000 – warriors and horses. Chinese were massive builders.

The Great Wall of China is one of their most impressive and everlasting architectural accomplishment. It was purely built for the utilitarian purpose of protecting the country from Mongolian invasions. They also built Buddhist temples called Pagodas, important among them are the ‘Giant Wild Goose Pagoda’, ‘Jade Pagoda’, ‘Flask Pagoda’ and the ‘Temple of Sleeping Buddha’ outside Peking, the present Beijing.

Writing and Literature: Chinese had developed the art of writing during Shang period. Chinese script was standardized during Chin Rulers. They have no alphabets and parts of speech. It consists of only characters which are more than 40,000. It started as pictograph and later they developed Characters or Logograms. Chinese characters constitute the oldest continuously used systems of writing in the world. Their writing played an important role in cultural unification. Chinese script also influenced Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese scripts. It is written from top to bottom. 

The invention of paper, silk and ink for writing helped the growth of writing and literature. The practice of writing history was also popular in China. The Chinese literature comprised of prose, poetry, philosophy and history. During Han and Tong dynasties, Chinese poetry reached great heights. Chinese had developed Geography, Geometry, Arithmetic, Calendars, Astronomy and they could predict eclipses accurately.

The important inventions of the Chinese are the following. Silk, Tea, Ink, Brushes for painting and writing, Abacus, Acupuncture, Rudder, Gun powder, Glass, Pottery, Porcelain, Rockets, Umbrella, Seismograph and Mariner Compass.

Philosophy and Religion: Lao tse, Confucius and Mencius were three great Philosophers who influenced the religious ideas of Chinese to a great extent. Lao tse’s philosophy is known as Taoism. He preached non violence, not to be conservative, to respect the wise, do one’s duty with sincerity and honesty etc., The philosophy of Confucius is known as ‘Confucianism’. The principles of Confucius had basis in common Chinese traditions and beliefs. He taught loyalty towards family, worship of ancestors, respect to elders and unity among the people of China.

a. Economic Impact: Land revenue was the main source of income to the Government. The British had incurred huge expenditure on administration, maintenance of army and waging many wars. To make up the burden of expenditure, they introduced some new systems of revenue collection in different provinces in India. They were:

1. Zamindari system (or) Permanent land revenue settlement: Lord Cornwallis introduced the Zamindari system in 1793 in Bengal, B ihar, Orissa and U.P. According to this system, the East India Company entered into an agreement with the Zamindars. The Zamindars were given permanent ownership of Land, which they cultivated with the help of tenants. Out of the total revenue collected, the Zamindars had to pay regularly the land revenue at 89%.

Merits and demerits of the Zamindari system:

a. The company was assured of a regular and fixed income.

b. In due course the Zamindars became a strong political force and the Company secured the loyalty of the Zamindars to support its colonalism.

c. Zamindars exploited the peasants by collecting high rates of revenue.

d. Zamindars led a life of comfort in cities. There came into being agents in between the landlords and the tenants.

2. Ryotwari or Munro system: This system was introduced by Governor Sir Thomas Munro in the Bombay and Madras presidencies in the 1820 C.E. Ryotwari system established direct settlement between the Company and the cultivator. The peasant (Ryot) was recognized as the owner of land on the condition, that he paid the land revenue regularly.

The land revenue fixed was about 50% the value of the yield. It was fixed on the basis of the quality of the soil and the nature of the crops grown. The land revenue was fixed not on a permanent basis but was revised periodically every 20 to 30 years. Under this system,

a. The farmers were exploited by the Company because the land revenue assessment was very high.

b. The cultivator had to pay revenue even when his produce was destroyed by drought or floods.

c. The farmers had to take loans from moneylenders to pay the land revenue. It they failed to pay the land tax, farmers forfeited ownership of their land.

3. Mahalwari system: This system was introduced by Lord William Bentinck in Northwestern India and the central parts of India in 1828 C.E. The Company entered into settlements with the Estate or Mahal (village). The farmers within the village were collectively considered to be the owners of the land and were also collectively responsible for the payment of land revenue. Mahalwari was a mixture of both Zamindari and Ryotwari systems.

The early Egyptians settled into villages, which developed into cities and later the City States were formed. They were ruled by Kings. This is known as the pre-dynastic period. These Kings were engaged in inter City – State quarrels. Stronger City – States showed their supremacy and started taking over other weaker City – States. This made way to the birth of Kingdoms. Different dynasties ruled these Kingdoms. About 30 dynasties have ruled Egypt for more than 3000 years. No dynasty survived for more then 6-7 generations.

The Egyptian Kings were called ‘Pharaohs’. They were considered as representatives of God on earth, hence enjoyed unlimited power. The Pharaoh ‘Menes’, united south and north Egypt in around 3000 B.C.E and made Memphis as his capital. The strong central government with absolute monarchy, a well controlled administration and strict implementation of laws were the basic features of Egyptian polity. 

The rule of dynasties can be divided into 3 phases. 

1. The Period of Old Kingdom. 

2. The Period of Middle Kingdom. 

3. The Period of New Kingdom.

The Period of Old Kingdom: It is also known as the Period of Pyramids. The Pharaohs of this period were very strong. There was a council of elders to advise the King, whose advice was not binding on the King. Pharaohs appointed Vizir, the Prime Minister who headed the Administration, Justice and Treasury. The Local officers maintained the records and the accounts.

The Period of Middle Kingdom: It is also known as the period of Feudal Lords. During this period, Lords became more powerful  than the Pharaohs. It led to many internal wars and anarchy. The authority of Pharaohs was restored by Amen Hotep I.

The Period of New Kingdom: During the new Kingdom, the Kings raised a powerful army and built a very strong Empire. Thutmose I conquered new territories and expanded the Empire. His daughter, Hatshepsut succeeded him. She was the first Empress in the history of the world. She ruled for twenty one years.

Egyptians developed pictographic writing. It is one of the earliest forms of writing. Egyptian writing is called Hieroglyphics. Glyph means a sign. Hieroglyphics contains hundreds of signs. Some of them stand for complete words while others represent sounds. Papyrus was used for writing. ‘The Books of Dead’, ‘Coffin Text’, ‘The Story of Ship wrecked Sailor’, ‘The tales of Anupu and Bitiu’, etc., were the important books of that era.

Egyptians had a fair knowledge of Medicine, Geometry, Calendars, Astronomy and Mathematics. Most of the scholars of ancient Egypt belonged to the priestly class. The construction of huge pyramids proves beyond doubt that Egyptians had sound knowledge of Geometry and Arithmetic. They were the first to develop the fraction system. They made a clear distinction between stars and planets. Their calendar was based on sun and known as solar calendar. They developed the calendar of 3 65 days with 12 months in a year and 30 days in a month. They divided the year into three seasons of four months each. About 1500 B.C.E, they invented the Shadow Clock to mark the times of a day. A specimen of such an Egyptian shadow clock is preserved in the Berlin Museum.

Egyptians were great builders. They developed fine arts. Their arts and architecture reflected their culture. They built temples for their Gods and Pyramids to bury their Kings. These are the proofs of a well organized and highly skilled artists, craftsmen and labourers. The Sphinx has the head of a man and body of a lion. Emperor Khaphre got it carved. It is 240 feet long and 66 feet high, carved out of a single stone.

The pyramid of Giza is the tomb of King Khufu. It is one of heaviest structures ever built. It was built by his son and grandson. It is the biggest pyramid, 746 x 746 and 481 ft high 23,00,000 stone blocks of average 2.5 ton weight were used in its construction. It occupies 13 acres of area. A million slaves worked for 20 years to complete it. It had a magnificent entrance. The road in front of it was lined with 365 statues of Sphinxes and two tall Obelisks stood on either side of the main road. During festive seasons the statues of Gods were paraded through the doors into the temple. There are more than 90 smaller Pyramids, still standing after 4000 years of their construction. The Pyramids are fine examples of the outstanding technical knowledge and sound administrative ability of the ancient Egyptians.

The geographical discoveries had a great impact on the political, economic, social, religious f and cultural history of the world. The circumnavigation of the earth by Magellan proved that, the earth is round. 

Venice, Genoa, Florence, etc were important trading centres of Europe. But now, they lost their importance because of the emergence of new cities like London, Lisbon, Amsterdam etc., This was mainly due to the discovery of new trade routes.

The Kings sent missionaries into the explored territories to spread Christianity. Hence newly Christianity entered into Asia, Africa and America and became a world religion. The Geographical discoveries gave a large scope for the spread of Christian religion by converting the natives.

The explorations brought the support of the rich merchants and the middle classes to monarchy. This support enabled stable monarchies at England, Spain, France etc.

The Geographical discoveries ensured competition among the European nations. The competition was mainly to have trade contacts with the newly discovered lands and subsequently have trade Monopoly. They became aggressive and ruthless to realize these goals. Commercial revolution took place by promoting trade and industry. Commerce underwent a remarkable change as regards to quality, quantity and kind of goods carried, routes, newer markets and methods. Joint Stock Companies and Banks were established and insurance of ships and goods was introduced, to safeguard against losses.

Discovery of new lands encouraged Slave trading, Ship building, Banking and Commerce. It also helped Renaissance and Reformation. The discoveries increased men’s knowledge about the world and this in turn led to the expansion of their mind. Exposure to the new worlds, interaction with new people and new modes of life, dispelled the funny and blind notions of medieval ignorance. This gave a tremendous impact to the intellectual revolution introduced by Renaissance.

As a result of these discoveries, Europe came in touch with the rest of the world and European culture spread to those lands. This contact helped them to enrich their knowledge. The discovery of new worlds offered good opportunity for the freedom loving people of different countries to migrate and improve their social, economic and political status. It encouraged scientific exploration and research and overall the living standards of people rose.

One of the ugliest effects of geographical discoveries was the birth of imperialism by the European powers. Europeans reached the coasts of the countries of Asia, Africa, America and Australia for establishing trade links. Eventually, they stayed there as masters and these countries were turned into colonies.

Introduction: Medieval European history is marked from the fall of Western Roman Empire in 476 CE to the fall of Eastern Roman Empire and Constantinople in 1453 CE. This period has a span of 1000 years.

The middle age is divided into 3 phases, which are as follows: Early Middle Age: It beg,an around 500 CE and ended around 1050 CE. It is called the ‘Dark age’ because of the confused and chaotic state of affairs that existed in Europe then.

High Middle Age: The period from 1050 CE to 1300 CE. This period witnessed advancement in terms of agriculture, improvement in the standard of living and Education along with political stability. Towns and Universities emerged. The authority of the Pope increased.

Later Middle Age: The period from 1300 to 1453 CE. This period witnessed further development of towns and cities and decline in the power of feudalism and Church. A new entrepreneurial and intellectual class emerged. They challenged the State and the Church.

Due to the fall of Roman Empire, there was political and social instability in Europe. The Church filled the gap and emerged as a powerful authority. It brought the required stability and order. It patronized many scholars and boosted missionary activities.

Manorial system was an important institution of the high middle ages. Under this system, the serfs worked in agricultural estates cantered around a ‘Manor’ owned by a Lord. The serfs were not slaves. They too owned a piece of land. But they were under the control and jurisdiction of a Lord. They worked in the Lord’s fields as well as their own and paid taxes to the Lord. The serfs commonly undertook activities like grazing, collection of fire Wood, fishing and cultivation together. It was like a closed community living. During the later high middle ages, the condition of the serfs improved. They paid rent instead of giving duties or services to the Lord.

A class of nobility emerged during this period. They involved themselves in cultural and political activities. The Church controlled the local skirmishes and battles. So the Nobles became free to develop the ideals of Knighthood. This led to the development of etiquette. The attitude towards women also changed.

In the Manorial system, the serfs started to pay the rents. So the coins or currency replaced barter trade. Currency helped the revival of trade and commerce. It led to the advancement of networks of roads and river transport system. City-states like Pisa, Venice and Genoa became flourishing trade centres. Cities like Paris, London and Cologne doubled their population. There was increase in the demand for country side goods, which strengthened the economic life of the people. Sophisticated urban life was an important characteristic of this period. There developed a business class.

This class established trade guilds to protect its own interests and made many rules for business transactions. There were two classes among the clergy the higher class and lower class. The higher clergy led a luxurious life, while the lower clergy lived with limited requirements and humility. So there developed great disregard for the higher clergy.

(a) Babylonia: It is in present Iraq. It was the capital of Mesopotamian Civilization. The famous law-giver Hammurabi ruled from here. Nebuchadnezzar built the ‘ Hanging Gardens’, which was one of the Wonders of the Ancient World.

(b) Cape of Good Hope: It is at the southern tip of South Africa. Bartholomew Diaz called it ‘Cape of Storms’. Later, Vasco-da Gama renamed it as ‘Cape of Good Hope’ under the direction of King John of Portugal, since it gave hope for further explorations to reach India.

(c) Constantinople: Presently called as Istanbul is in Turkey. Its original name was Byzantium, which was founded in 7th Century B.C.E. by a Greek King Byzas. Constantine the Great, made it the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 4th century C.E. Then it came to be known as Constantinople which means ‘The City of Constantine’. Ottoman Turks captured it in 1453, which led to the need to discover new sea routes to India.

(d) Venice: It is in Italy. It was one of the centres of Trade and Commerce during Medieval Period. Famous travellers Marco Polo and Nicolo Polo belonged to this city. It is called as ‘The City of Canals’, as this beautiful city is basically a group of a lot of islands connected by bridges.

(e) Lisbon: It is the capital of Portugal. Most of the Portuguese navigators, including Vasco-da- , Gama of the Age of discovery started their voyages from this city. 

(f) Moscow: It is the capital city of Russia, located on the banks of river Moskva and named after the river. It was one of the centres of Russian Revolution of 1917 and was made the capital of USSR.

(g) Rome: It is the capital of Italy. It was also the capital of the Roman Empire. Vatican City in Rome is the centre of Pope, who is the religious head of the Catholics. According to a Roman legend, Rome was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus in 8^th century B.C.E. According to another version the name is derived from the Greek word Rome which means ‘strength’. 

(h) Hiroshima: It is in Japan. Hiroshima means ‘Wide Island’. During World War II, it had large depots of military supplies. As retaliation for the Pearl Harbour attack, on Monday the 6^ August 1945 at 8.15 a.m., the first Atomic Bomb called ‘Little Boy’was dropped on Hiroshima by the US Air force. As a result of this, an estimated 80,000 people were killed.

Contributions of the Delhi Sultanates :

1. Administration: The Kingdom of Delhi Sultanate was a theocratic state, (religion was Islam). ‘Shariat’ (Islamic law) were the rules of the state. The ‘Ulema (Islamic scholars) controlled the state and administration. The Sultans called themselves ‘Naib’ (deputy) of Kalifa.

2. Central Government: Sultan was the head of administration. He exercised the legislative, executive and judicial powers. He was guided by the Ulemas. Allauddin kept the Ulemas away from the state affairs.

The Sultan. carried the administration with the help of a number of ministers. They were the Wazir (the Prime minister in charge of revenue and finance), Ariz-i- Mamlik who was in charge of the military, Amir-i-Mazlis who was in charge of royal forts and conferences, Barid-i-Mumalik- head of the state news agency,

Dahir-i- mumalik – in charge of the royal correspondences, Sadarus-Sadur who handled religious matters and Kazi-ul- Qazat- the Chief Justice.

3. Revenue: Land revenue was the main source of the state income. The war booty, tributes, house, water, religious and Jaziya taxes, etc were the other sources of income to the state. Land tax could be paid either in cash or kind.

4. Judicial: The Sultans administered justice with the help of Kazi-ul-Qazat (The chief Justice). The chief Kazi was helped by a Mufti (interpreter of Islamic law). The towns and cities had courts headed by Kazis and assisted by Muftis. Kotwal was the Police officer in charge of law and order.

5. Army: The Sultan maintained a strong army. It consisted of cavalty, intantry and elephant forces. The Sultanate was primarily a military state. The Sultan was the supreme commander. All ministers and officers except the chief Justice and the Khazis were to render both civil and military duties. Diwan-i-Ariz was in charge of army administration. The pay of the soldiers varied according to their service.

6. Provincial administration: The Sultanate (Kingdom) was divided into a number of provinces called ‘Iqtas’. The head of a province was called ‘Naib Sultan’. They enjoyed absolute power in their provinces. The main duties were collection of revenue and maintenance of law and order within the province. The maintained an army of their own. Some Sultans transferred the Governers and punished them severely, if they revolted against the state.

Each province was divided into ‘Shiqs and Paraganas’. They were looked after by Shiqdars and Amils respectively. Village was the primary unit of administration. It had traditional officers such as the Chaudhari, the Patwari, the Chaukidar, etc.

7. Literature: This period witnessed the growth of Persian and regional language literatures. Persian poets of central Asia took shelter in the courts of the Sultans of Delhi. Amir Khusru was the most outstanding writer and he was called the ‘Parrot of India’. He wrote Khazyan-ul- Futuh, and Tarkish-i-Alai. Amir Hasan Dehalvi wrote sonnets.

Badruddin, Maulana Moinuddin, Umrani and Hassan Nizami were some of the great persian writers. Mohammad-bin-Tughalak and Firoz Shah Tughalak were great scholars. Ziauddin Barani and Ibn Batuta were great historians of the Tughalak period.

Barani started the Tarik-i-Firoz Shahi and it was completed by Shams-i-Siraj Afif. Chand Bardai wrote Prithiviraja Raso, Malik Mohammad Jayasi wrote Padmavati. There was encouragement for translating works from Sanskrit to Persian.

8. Art and Architecture: The Sultanate of Delhi introduced the Indo-Islamic style of architecture. It represents a synthesis of the two religious ideals like Hinduism and Islam.

The important features of the Indo-Islamic movements are minarates, arches, domes, hazaras, large gateways, etc., Quwatul- Islam, Mosque at Delhi and Adai-Dinka- Jhampara Mosque at Ajmer were the eatlist creations. The Qutub minar was started by Qutubuddin Aibak and completed by Iltumash.

Hauz-i-Shamsi, Jami Masjid, and Shamsi Idgah were built by Iltumash. The Jami Masjid is one of the largest and most beautiful buildings. Allauddin built the palace of Hazar situm (Palace of 1000 pillars), the fort of Siri, Jamait Khan Masjidand the Alai Darwaza at Delhi. Firoz Shah was the greatest of the builders. He laid out the cities of Firozabad, Fatehbad, and Janpur.

1. Babylonia: It is in present Iraq. It was the capital of Mesopotamian Civilization. The famous law-giver Hammurabi ruled from here. Nebuchadnezzar built the ‘ Hanging Gardens’. which was one of the Wonders of the Ancient World.

2. Athens: It is the present capital city of Greece. It was one of the City-States of Ancient Greek Civilization. The city was named after the Goddess Athena. The famous Parthenon Temple is located here.

After Greeks, Athens was ruled by the Romans. In 15th century C.E. it was captured by the Ottoman Turks. After the Greek war of Independence in the 19th century, Athens was chosen as the capital of the newly independent Greek state in 1834.

3. Alexandria: It is in northern Egypt. It was founded by Alexander the Great. It was intended to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile Valley. An Egyptian City, Rhakotis already existed on the shores and was later given the name Alexandria. In Egyptian, it means “That which is built up”. In the ancient times it had a Light house which was one of the Wonders of the World. 

4. Venice: It is in Italy. It was one of the centres of Trade and Commerce during Medieval Period. Famous travellers Marco Polo and Nicolo Polo belonged to this city. It is called as ‘The City of Canals’, as this beautiful city is basically a group of a lot of islands connected by bridges.

5. Constantinople: Presently called as Istanbul is in Turkey. Its original name was Byzantium, which was founded in 7th Century B.C.E. by a Greek King Byzas. Constantine the Great, made it the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 4th century C.E. Then it came to be known as Constantinople which means ‘The City of Constantine’. Ottoman Turks captured it in 1453, which led to the need to discover new sea routes to India.

6. Lisbon: It is the capital of Portugal. Most of the Portuguese navigators, including Vasco-da- , Gama of the Age of discovery started their voyages from this city. 

7. Versailles: It is in France. In 1624 The French Ruler Louis XIII, constructed a hunting lodge at the village of Versailles. His successor Louis XIV expanded it to be the largest Palace and from 1682 established his court here. After World War I, in 1919 the Treaty of Versailles was signed here between Germany and the Allied powers. 

8. Geneva: It is in Switzerland. It was one of the centres of Protestant movement. International organizations like ILO, WHO, WTO and GATT are located here.

Rome: Capital of Italy, Capital of Roman Empire. Vatican City-City of Pope.

Jerusalem: In Israel – holy city of Judaism Christianity and Islam. Jesus crucified here. 

Cape of Good Hope: In South Africa. Diaz called it Cape of Storms. Renamed as Cape of Good Hope when Vasco da Gama’s hopes of finding a new sea route to India were revived.

New York: In U.S.A. One of the 13 British Colonies. Head Quarters of U.N.O is located here.

London: Capital of U.K. Centre of Industrial Revolution.

Berlin: Capital of Germany, after World War II divided as East & West Berlin. Reunified in 1990.

Hiroshima: In Japan. Atomic Bomb dropped by USA in 1945. 80000 killed.

Moscow: Capital of Russia, one of the centres of Russian Revolution of 1917.

(a) Babylonia: It is in present Iraq. It was the capital of Mesopotamian Civilization. The famous law-giver Hammurabi ruled from here. Nebuchadnezzar built the ‘ Hanging Gardens’, which was one of the Wonders of the Ancient World. 

(b) Mecca: It is in Saudi Arabia. Prophet Mohammad, the founder of Islam was born here. It is regarded as the holiest city of Islam. 

(c) Constantinople: Presently called as Istanbul is in Turkey. Its original name was Byzantium, which was founded in 7th Century B.C.E. by a Greek King Byzas. Constantine the Great, made it the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire in 4th century C.E. Then it came to be known as Constantinople which means ‘The City of Constantine’. Ottoman Turks captured it in 1453, which led to the need to discover new sea routes to India. 

(d) Cape of Good Hope: It is at the southern tip of South Africa. Bartholomew Diaz called it ‘Cape of Storms’. Later, Vasco – daGama renamed it as ‘Cape of Good Hope’ under the direction of King John of Portugal, since it gave hope for further explorations to reach India.

(e) London: It is the capital of U.K located on the banks of the river Thames. It was the main centre of Industrial Revolution. It is the famous centre of learning.

According to one origin, London meant the place belonging to a man called ‘Londinos’. As per another view, it is derived from the word ‘Lowonida’ meaning ‘river too wide to ford’ referring to river Thames, which flows through London.

(f) Paris: It is the capital of France. The Bourbon family ruled over France from here, till the French Revolution of 1789. In modern times, many historical treaties have been signed here.

The name Paris is derived from that of its earliest inhabitants, known as the ‘Parissi’ meaning ‘The working People’ or ‘The Craftsmen’. Paris is also known as ‘The City of Light’, due to its fame as a centre of education and ‘Paradise of Travellers’. The famous Eiffel Tower is here.

(g) Waterloo: It is in Belgium. In 1815. Napoleon after escaping from the Island of Elba, fought his last battle here against the Allied armies of Europe and was defeated.

(h) Hiroshima: It is in Japan. Hiroshima means ‘Wide Island’. During World War II, it had large depots of military supplies. As retaliation for the Pearl Harbour attack, on Monday the 6^th August 1945 at 8.15 a.m., the first Atomic Bomb called ‘Little Boy’was dropped on Hiroshima by the US Air force. As a result of this, an estimated 80,000 people were killed.

Introduction: The revolt of 1857 set the tone for India’s Independence struggles. The period between 1757-1857 was marked by the plunder of Indian wealth, by East India Company. Political, social and cultural changes led to the rebellion against the British rule. This was the first united revolt and it was the outburst of accumulated discontent of Indians against the policies of East India company.

The spark of patriotism was kindled in a millitary unit at Meerut which soon burst into a terrific flame and spread to other parts of the country and shook the British rule. British called this as ‘Sepoy Mutiny’, but the nationalists called it as the first war of Indian Independence.

Causes for the revolt:

1. Political causes: The conquests and annexations of the British not only affected the ruling class, but also gave a rude shock to the sentiments of the people. The British interfered in the internal affairs of the Indian states and followed the policy of divide and rule.

Implementation of the subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse, using the pretext of misrule to annex the Kingdoms and Princely states were the reasons for the Indian Kings, Princes, Soldiers, Zamindars to be disappointed with the actions of the British East India Company.

2. Administrative causes: The British introduced a new system of administration which replaced the traditional system. The introduction of ‘Rule of Law’ and ‘Equality before law’ developed suspicion in the minds of the orthodox (traditional) Hindus; and Muslims. Indians were not given higher posts in the administration and were paid much less than the British officers with no promotions. This was contrary to the British policy of equality before law.

3. Economic causes: Economic exploitation was an important cause for the revolt. The huge drain of wealth made India economically poor. The British trade policy had established a monopoly on trade. They converted India into a supplier of raw materials and a market for their finished goods. Indian native handicrafts suffered a lot.

Indian goods could not be sold in England due to heavy taxes imposed on their export. The Land tax was also raised, due to which many of them were compelled to mortage their lands to moneylenders and consequently found themselves in deep debts. Dr. Eshwari Prasad remarks “India became a milk cow for England, while her own children died of starvation’’.

4. Social causes: Many social and religious reforms caused (Social Reforms Act) serious discontent among Hindu and Muslim orthodox sections. The British thought that they belonged to a superior race and humiliated Indians. The abolition of Sati, permission for widow remarriages, curb on child marriages, purdah, animal sacrifices, etc., caused a lot of unrest among the orthodox people.

The introduction of telegraph and railways were seen as efforts to chain the country and were clear signs of westernization. The British treated Indians as unworthy of trust, incapable of honesty and fit to be employed only where they could not do without them. They were rude and arrogant towards Indians and were very racial in their nature and spirit.

5. Religious causes: The British activities affected the sentiments of Hindus and Muslims. The Chritian missionaries were seen everywhere in the schools, hospitals, prisons and at the market places. They tried to convert Indians to Christianity by various devious methods. The spread of English education and culture through missionaries and convents created suspicion among Indians about their religions.

Hindu soldiers were forced to cross the sea against their belief. Forced intermarriages became a means to convert the natives to Christianity. Cartridges greased with Cows / Pigs fat affected the religious sentiments of Hindus and Muslims alike. The Europeans treated Indians as untouchables.

6. Military causes: Indian solidiers were paid very low salaries compared to the British soldiers of the same grade, and were not promoted to any rank higher than that of a subedar. According to the Enlistment Act of 1856 of Lord Canning, it required the sepoys to serve overseas also. Hindus believed that crossing the sea was a sin (Kalapani).

The soldiers were often treated with contempt by their British officers. There were rumours among the sepoys that the British were trying to break their caste and convert them to Christianity. There were more than 75000 soldiers in the British army from Oudh. When Oudh was annexed by the British Empire citing maladministration, these soldiers were angry.

7. Immediate causes: The British introduced new Enfield rifles. The top of the cartridges had to be removed by biting it off. A rumour spread that the cartridges were smeared with the fat of cows and pigs. The Indian sepoys felt that the British were trying to spoil their religion. They refused to use these rifles and the British forced and threatened the soldiers to use them. This was the spark, which later spread all over the country.

Results of the revolt:

The first war of Indian Independence marks a very important turning point in the history of India and its far-reaching results. They are :

1. End of the Company rule: The East India Company rule was abolished and the British Crown took over the administration of India. Viceroy was the representative of the Crown in India and Lord Canning was the first Viceroy.

2. The Queen’s proclamation (or) Magna carta of India in 1858: Queen Victoria issued her famous proclamation known as the Magna carta of the Indian people (Lord Canning announced it on 1^st November 1858). Indians were promised that their rights, selfrespect, honour and religious traditions would be safeguarded and Government jobs would be offered to all without any favouritism. The British Government will not annex any more Indian states.

4. Unity among Indians: The revolt brought unity among Hindus and Muslims, as they came together to fight the British.

5. Source of Inspiration: The revolt gave British a taste of Indian patriotism. It served as a source of inspiration in India’s struggle for freedom. The heroes of the revolt soon became household names in the country. The Mughal rule also came to an end.

Shivaguru and Aryamba were the parents of Shankaracharya.

1. 1^st Buddhist council was held circa 487 BCE at Rajagriha. 

2. 2^nd Buddhist council was held circa 387 BCE at Vaishali. 

3. 3^rd Buddhist council was held circa 251 BCE in Pataliputra. 

4. 4^th Buddhist council was held circa 100 CE in Kashmir.

Gulbarga and Bidar were the capitals of the Bahamani dynasty.

Pulikeshi – II assumed the title ‘Parameshwara’ after the battle of river Narmada. Other titles were “Sri Prithvivallabha, Dakshinapatheshwara, Satyashraya, Kanchigonda, Paramabhaghavata” etc.

Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Diwan-i-Khas, and Diwan-i-Am.

Goa, Diu, Daman, Calicut, Cochin, Santhome, Bombay, Bassein, Machalipattanam, etc. were the trading centers of the Portuguese in India.

1. Govardhana Peethe at Puri (East) 

2. Kalikamatha at Dwaraka in Gujarat (West) 

3. Jyothirmatha at Badarinath in U.P (North) 

4. Sharada Peetha at Sringeri (South)

Vikramaditya -VI started the Vikrama Era in 1076 CE.

Dwarasamudra (Halebeedu), Belur, Bankapura, Hakkundi, and Kannanur were the .capitals of the Hoysalas during different periods under different rulers.

Vikramarjima Vijaya and Adipurana.

Mahmud Gawan was a chief minister of Mahammad Shah – III. He built the Madarasa at Bidar.

Arabs were the first among the Muslims to invade India. Mohammad – bin – Quasim, the Governor of Basra invaded India in 712 C.E.

Gol Gumbaz is in Bijapur. It was built by Sultan Mohammad Adil Shah.

(iii) Gondeshwar temple - Sinnar

a. Vishnuvardhana 1108-1152 CE : Bittideva or Vishnuvardhana was the greatest Hoysala ruler. He was the son of Ereyanga, and he ascended the throne in 1108 CE. He had taken part in many wars during his brother Ballala-I’s reign. He gained a lot of experience in administration, as the Governor of Nanjangud province.

He had ambitions of making the Kingdom independent. He was the first Hoysala King to revolt against the Chalukyas of Kalyana and tried to establish an independent Kingdom. But, he was defeated by Vikramaditya-VL By his ability and might, he became a powerful ruler.

Military achievements of Vishnuvardhana:

1. War with Cholas: The aim of Vishnuvardhana was to defeat and expel the Cholas from Gangavadi. He sent an army to conquer Talakadu, Kolar and Mysore. He completely routed the Cholas from Gangavadi in the battle ofTalakadu in 1114 CE and took the title ‘Talakadugonda’. In commemoration of this victory, he built the Kirtinarayana temple at Talakadu and the Channakeshwara temple at Belur.

According to the Malavalli inscription. Vishnuvardhana himself chased the Cholas and occupied Kolar. Later, he drove back the Cholas uptoKanchi and earned the title Kanchigonda. From there, he raided Madurai and defeated Pandyas. After conquering Pandyas of Uchchangi in 1117 CE in the ‘Battle of Dumme’, he marched up to Rameshwara. He defeated the Nidugal Cholas and Cheras also.

2. Defeated the Kongalavas and Alupas: According to the Belur inscription, Vishnuvardhana defeated the Kongalava King and married his daughter Chandala Devi. While returning, he defeated Rattar of Halasagi and Alupas of South Canara.

Chamarajanagar inscription of 1117 CE, infers that Vishnuvardhana threatened the Todas, destroyed the Pallavas by killing their King Kala and made the Kongas run away.

3. War with the Chalukyas of Kalyana : Vishnuvardhana wanted to free his Kingdom from the yoke of Chalukyan imperialism. But, he was defeated by Vikramaditya – VI in 1118 CE in the battle of Kannegala The Chalukyan sovereign continued till the death of Vikramaditya-VI.

4. Titles of Vishnuvardhana : He had titles like Mahamandaleshwara, Chalukyamani, Mandalika Chudamani, Maleperolganda, Talakadugonda, Kanchigonda, Veeraganga, Nolambagonda, Kaliyaga Partha, Kirthinarayana, Vikramaganga, etc.,

5. Religious Policy : Vishnuvardhana became a great follower of Ramanuja and embraced Sri Vaishnavism. During his rule, Jainism had also attained the highest position. His Queen Shantala and general Gangaraja were devout jains. Gangaraja was given enough grants to renovate all the basadies in Gangavadi.Vishnuvardhana practised religious tolerance towards Basadies and temples at Talakadu, Belur, Melukote, Tonnur, Gadag, Bankapura, etc.

6. Art and Architecture : Vishnuvardhana was a great patron of art and architecture. During his regime, a unique style of temple building began. His period was called ‘the golden age of temple building’ and he laid the foundation for the Hoysala architecture.

Important temples built by him were the Channakeshwara and Kappechanniga temples at Belur, Kirtinarayana temple of Talakadu, Veeranarayana temples at Gadag and Tonnur, Chaluvanarayana temple at Melukote, Mahalakshmi temple of Doddagaddavalli and Gangadhareshwara temple at Shivaganga, etc.,

7. Literature : Vishnuvardhana encouraged literature too. Jain scholar Rajadhitya wrote Kshetragariitha, Vyavaharaganitha, and Leelavathi in Kannada. Nayasena wrote Dharmamrutha, Ramanujacharya wrote Vedanthasara, Vedanthadeepika, and Vedanthasangraha.

Introduction : 6^th century B.C.E. was a period of religious movement.in India. There were several factors which contributed to the social upheaval of that period. The irregularities (caste, injustice and rigid practices) in the existing social and religious systems were exposed and there was a growing awareness about the drawbacks in one’s own culture, and it led to the growth of new religions.

Factors responsible for the rise of new religions :

1. Complications in the Vedic religion : In the beginning, vedic religion was very simple. The Aryans worshipped nature. Religion was not costly and there were sacrifices. Later, due to the influence of priests, a number of rigidities crept into religion. People got dissatisfied and they wanted changes which they found in the new religions.

2. Supremacy of the priestly class : In the early vedic age, no priests were needed to perform Yajna, but gradually, things became complicated. It became more or less impossible for the family people to perform Yajnas by themselves without the help of priests. The Brahmanas enjoyed a number of special privileges and regarded themselves as superiors to all others.

3. Costly rituals in religion : Earlier there were no rituals associated, with religion. The performance of simple rituals gradually became expensive and elaborate. Moreover, the performance of meaningless rituals was regarded as a waste by rationalists of that age. People were seeking a religion which would emphasize on simple ethics and righteous code of conduct.

4. The performance of sacrifices : During the later vedic age, the practice of performing sacrifices got started. Animal sacrifices formed part of the rituals, which became very costly and meaningless. So, people became disenchanted with the existing religions. They wanted a change, which they found in the new religions.

5. Sanskrit Hymns (mantras) : Vedic literature was in Sanskrit, which was mastered only by the priestly class. Common people were unable to understand Sanskrit. The popular belief was, that the recital of the hymns alone would ensure prosperity and health, but gradually people lost faith in chanting mantras (hymns) blindly and were looking out for a religion based on simple ethical principles.

6. The caste system : Social system was rigid. There was discrimination among the different classes of people. Intercaste marriage and even interdining were prohibited. A person born in a particular caste was forced to follow the profession of his caste irrespective of his interest and attitude. Brahmanas enjoyed high status, but shudras had to suffer untold miseries. People became discontented due to the inequality in the society.

7. Birth of Great personalities : When people were unhappy and discontented, there arose two great personalities, namely Mahaveera and Buddha. They preached simple principles of Life in the Language of the common people. The simple path of salvation preachead by the new religions attracted the common people towards the new faiths.

Conclusion : All the above factors led to the growth of discontentment among the common people. It led to the growth of rational outlook and the spirit of enquiry. It led to the establishment of new religions like Jainism and Buddhism.

There were no regular educational institutions in the present sense of tire term. Education was imparted in Gurukulas, Pathashalas, Agraharas, Temples, and Ghatikas. Education, on the whole, was oral. Education was imparted by learned teachers to the students, who stayed with the teacher throughout their educational career. The aim of education was to develop knowledge, character, truthfulness and devotion. The teacher enjoyed great respect.

The Panchala parishad was a great academy of. learning. Higher education was imparted at the universities like Kanchi and Taxila. Education commenced with a ceremony called upanayanam. Both men and women received education.

Gargi, Maithreyi, Lopamudra, Shaswathi, and others were important women scholars. Vedas, puranas, philosophy, logic, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, medicine, etc, were the important subjects taught. Sanskrit was the medium of instruction.

1. Science: Aryans achieved great progress in mathematics, geometry, medicine, and metallurgy. Calculations like the distance between the Sun and Moon, Earth and Moon and Sun and Earth were known to them. They also had knowledge of the occurance of eclipses, movement of Comets, etc. Cure of diseases was done by using herbs, roots, leaves, oils, salts, and mud. They followed the lunar calendar. We can see in the manufacture of the chariots, textiles, metal goods, musical instruments, ornaments, etc of these people, the progress made by them in technology.

Lala Lajpat Roy, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Bal GangadharTilak were the extremist leaders.

1. Vinaya Pitaka 

2. Sutta Pitaka

3. Abhidamma Pitaka are the sacred books of Buddhism.

Zamindari system, Royatwari, and Mahalwari land revenue systems were introduced by the British in India.

Abul Fazal and Badauni were the famous historians of Akbar’s period.

1. Buddhism was given Royal patronage, A large number of missionaries were sent to foreign countries to spread Buddhism. 

2. He conducted the 4^th Buddhist council in Kashmir. The purpose was to settle the disputes that were existing in Buddhism.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were the two taxes collected by Shivaji.