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Free riders are the consumers who will not voluntarily pay for what they can get for free and for which there is no exclusive title to the property being enjoyed. Here the link between the producer and the consumer is broken and the government steps in to provide for such goods.

When citizens of a country utilize public goods without paying their fair share in taxes than they called Free-riders.

Wealth of Nations.

The inferior goods are those goods for which the demand increases with the fall in income of consumer and vice-versa. That is, there will be a negative relationship between income of consumer and demand for inferior goods. Here, the income of consumer and demand move in opposite directions. Example: low-quality goods.

Free riders are the consumers who will not voluntarily pay for what they can get for free and for which there is no exclusive title to the property being enjoyed. Here the link between the producer and the consumer is broken and the government steps in to provide for such goods.

Three properties or Characteristics of indifference curve are. 

(i) Sloping downwards from left to right : The curve is negatively sloped because to obtain more quantity of one good the consumer must give up some quantity of the other good in order to remain at the same utility level the curve represents. 

(ii) Strictly Convex Towards the Origin : It is because the marginal rate of substitution continuously declines the consumer moves down wards along the curve. This is due to the law of diminishing marginal utility.

(iii) Higher indifference curve represents higher utility : This is because of the assumption that preferences are monotonic and more quantity consumed means more utility. Higher indifference curve represents more quantity of good. 

(iv) Indifference curve can never intersect each other etc.

An open economy is one which interacts with rest of the world through various channels.

The consumption which is independent of income is called as autonomous consumption.

The consumption expenditure at zero level of income is called autonomous consumption.

Public goods are the goods and services provided by the government and which cannot be provided by the market mechanism. Example, roads, defence, etc.

The consumption which is independent of income is called as autonomous consumption.

It is a market with one seller or firm with many buyers.

The supply curve shifts to the right due to the technological progress.

1 -e; 2-a; 3 -b; 4-c; 5 -d.

Non-paying users of public goods are known as Free riders.

Option : (A). I & II

Current account is the record of trade in goods and services and transfer payments.

Students staying abroad for their studies.

Environmental degradation is a global issue, which has been discussed and debated over the past decades. It is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as air, water and soil. It affects and depletes the ecosystem, hampers the ozone layer and is responsible for extinction of wildlife. Environmental degradation is not restricted to national or state boundaries. It hampers the surroundings irrespective of any national or state boundaries and its harmful effects are well felt in the surrounding states and neighbouring countries and even globally

For example, if India has a lot of air pollution through massive thermal power plants and other sources, it affects its neighbouring countries like Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. Acid rain and climate change are some transcontinental issues. Land degradation in india affects Bangladesh as it brings massive silt and floods. Therefore, environmental degradation is a serious issue which has grabbed the attention of all countries irrespective of boundaries because protecting the environment is the need of the hour at the global level.

Option : (D) Thymine

Thymine base is not present in RNA.

Uracil base present on the place of Thymine in RNA.

Option : (B) rotation of polarised light.

Enantiomers differs only in rotation of plane polarised light. They have same boiling point, melting point, and solubility.

Answer is  C₃H₈O

Causes for Dalit Movement are as follows:

1. Social injustice: As per the law of nature, all men are born equal. But in practice, equal treatment and equal opportunities have been denied. Exploitation in society was widespread. To get their legitimate rights and opportunities, dalits rebelled under the leadership of many reformers which took the form of movement against the injustice.

2. Economic inequality: Dalits worked in the lands of high caste Elindus and were responsible for the wealth of the feudalist upper castes. Inspite of it, they were treated inhumanly and were not given proper share of wealth. Hence, their position was pathetic. Added to the this, they were victims of exploitation, atrocity, harassment, and other heinous Acts. Their opposition was expressed in the form of agitations

3. Discrimination: Discrimination was rampant in all walks of life. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar himself was the victim of such discrimination. He dared to enter the Kalaram Temple of Nasik against all opposition with his fellow dalits. He publicly used the water of Mahad tank. With this, he started democratic struggle against discrimination to attain social equality. This became the stepping stone for Dalit Movement.

4. Lack of awareness: Dalits were deprived of educational facilities which lead to lack of awareness. Hence, exploitation atrocities mounted up. To get relieved of such situations and to create awareness, movements like Bahishkrith Hitakarini Sabha (1924), Dalit Sangharsh Samiti (1974) and others were initiated nationwide.

5. Political Backwardness: Basically Dalits were kept away from political participation and decision making processes due to denial opportunities. Social boycott, exploitation, and subordination were responsible for political backwardness. To come out of these barriers, Dalits were forced to organise agitations and protests which finally got converted into movements.

6. Political implications: Dalit movement is named as Dalit Andolan in Karnataka, Asprushya (untouchable) Aandolan in Maharashtra, Adi Dravida Andolan in Tamilnadu, Pulaya Aandolan in Kerala, Adi Dharma Andolan in Punjab and Namasudra Aandolan in West Bengal.

As a result of Dalit Movements, in the post Independence period, several measures were taken to improve the status of Dalits. The Constituation of India has provided many provisions for the upliftment of Dalits to bring them into the main stream. Many rights have been incorporated to empower Dalits.

Causes:

1. Policy of the British India: The discriminatory policies of the East India Company regarding divide and rule, destroyed the unity between Hindus and Muslims. It manifested in the Sepoy Mutiny (1857). During the period of Viceroy Lord Curzon, Bengal was divided (1905) on the basis of religion. Communal electorate for Muslims was introduced during the period of Lord Minto. All these intensified the cause of communalism.

2. Hind-Muslim Nationalism: Communal organizations were formed by separatists. In 1906, Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha came into existence. Mohammad Ali Jinnah who was called as ‘Muslim Gokhale’ of India was brainwashed by the Britishers. He became the champion of the two nation theory based on religion. Extremists of the Indian National Congress began to assert their demands. These developments created suspicion and distrust between Hindus and Muslims before Independence.

3. Communal Riots: Large scale communal riots took place in India after Independence. Religious minorities both in India and Pakistan became victims during this situation and were attacked and tortured. Later communal riots occurred in Bhagalpur, Meerut, Kanpur, Lucknow, Ayodhya, Ahmadabad, Mumbai and in many other places.

The demolition of Babri Masjid at Ayodhya by a mob on 6^th December 1992, largely contributed for the animosity between Hindus and Muslims and the successive events intensified the mistrust between these communities.

4. Politically manipulated: In India many issues are politically manipulated by leaders for their selfish gain. This leads to hatred among the communities.

5. Communality in organization: Different communities in India have established their own organizations based on communality, to support particular political parties in their own interest.

Political implications: Feminist movement tries to overcome women exploitation and atrocities. In this behalf various measures have been taken for the empowerment of women as follows:

1. Constitutional opportunities: Article 14,15, 15(3), 16, 34(A), 39(B) and 42 of the Constitution of India provides for the removal of inequality and discrimination based on gender..

2. Legislative measures: Some legislative measures have been taken to eradicate gender based inequality. For example, Rape is a criminal offence under IPC Section 376, kidnapping and using women for illegal purpose is an offence under IPC Section 363-373. Torture for dowry is prohibited under IPC Section 498-A.

3. Other legislative measures: Family Court Act 1954, Special Marriage Act 1954, Hindu Marriage Act 1955, The Dowry Prohibition Act 1961, Protection of Women against Domestic Violence Act 2005 and Abolition of Child Marriage Act 2006 have been enforced to protect the interests of women. 

4. Special privileges for women: National Women Commission was established in 1992 to recommend the government for the improvements of women.

5. Reservation in local bodies: Through 73^rd and 74^th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 33% of seats are reserved for women in Local Body Elections.

6. National policy of the women empowerment: Department of Women and Child Welfare under the Secretariat of Human Resource Development framed a National Policy for the empowerment of women.

Definition :

1. The disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of human or animal life is called as
   sound pollution.
2. It is a form and level of environmental sound that is generally considered likely to annoy, distract or even harm other people.

Measurement of Sound Pollution :
The excessive of loudness of sound is called as sound pollution. The sound loudness is measured in decibal (dB) unit. i.e. decibel (dB) is the unit of measurement of sound loudness. It is measured with the help of Decibel meter or Larm barometer.

The unit of sound frequency is Hertz. The human capacity to hear sound is 20 to 20,000 Hertz.

80 dB or more sound loudness in the environment is called as sound pollution. The sound lever in normal conversation is 60 dB. The sound level above 90 dB is harmful for human beings. The upper tolerance limit of human beings is 120 dB. Some of the sound values of different sources are as follows :-

• Audible sound — 15 dB or more
• Quite office/room — 30 dB
• Average home — 50 dB
• Normal conversation — 60 dB
• High ways — 60 dB or 80 dB
• Shouting — 90 dB
• Industries and Machine — 110 dB
• Intolerable sound (DJ etc.) — 130 dB
• Jet aeroplane sound — 150 dB
• Rocket engine sound — 180 dB

Sources of Sound Pollution :
The various sources of sound pollution are as follows :

1. Noise by Industries : The mechanization increased the production but simultaneously the sound pollution is also increased. This sound pollution indirectly harmful for out health. In various industries, the sound level is increasing 120 dB or more.
2. Noise by Aeroplanes : Aeroplanes are the bigger sources of noise pollution. They produce sound of 150 dB or more. The houses and building develop around the airports develop cracks and the persons residing close to airports losing hearing and developing irritability.
3. Noise by Motor Vehicles : Numbers of motor vehicles is increasing with the population to provide.transportation. They are causing noise pollution which is more in big cities like Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai etc.
4. Noise by Loud speakers and Generators : Nowadays, the use of loudspeaker is increased in various programs, as a result sound pollution is increased enormously.
   To keep constant supply of electricity, generators are used in factories, markets and houses, The generators produce sound pollution.

Effects of Sound Pollution :
The various harmful effects of sound pollution are as follows:

• Gradual loss of hearing and may be complete deafness.
• It causes irritability and restlessness.
• It may cause ulcers in the small intestine.
• Sudden excessive sound may lead to abortion.
• Insomnia.
• Reduce in working capacity.
• Loss of hunger
• Increase in B.P.

Control of Noise Pollution :

1. We have to control the noise in the industries by using proper measures. Industries should be in outer areas.
2. Air ports should be far away from the population.
3. Dense plantation is required around the industries and air ports.
4. Use of loudspeakers and generators should be banned.
5. Making the public aw are regarding deleterious effects of noise pollution.

Answer: Number of protons

Rate of diffusion ∝ 1/√M

where, M = molecular weight

For gas A and B -

\(\frac{r_A}{r_B}=\sqrt{\frac{M_B}{M_A}}\) ...(i)

for same volume of diffusion -

rate of diffusion ∝ 1/Time taken ...(ii)

from equation (i) and (ii) -

\(\frac{t_B}{t_A}=\sqrt{\frac{M_B}{M_A}}\) ...(iii)

Here, given,

M_A = 49u

t_A = 20 sec

t_B = 10 sec

M_B = ?

Using equation (iii) and putting the value of M_A, t_A and t_B we got -

10/20 \(=\sqrt{\frac{M_B}{49u}}\)

⇒ 1/4 \(=\frac{M_B}{49u}\)

⇒ M_B = 49u/4

⇒ M_B = 12.25 u

Hence, molecular mass of gas B will be 12.25 u.