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Earlier Egyptian pictographic writing was called as Hieroglyphics. 

The limits of the Civil Disobedience Movement are-    

1. The Congress ignore the dalits and the depressed classes in order to please the high caste Hindus. Hence, the participation of the depressed classes was Limited.    

2. The Congress was associated with the Hindu related Nationalist groups. So, the Muslim participation was less.    

3. There was distrust between the communities alienated by the Congress. Large sections of Muslims did not respond to the civil disobedience movement.    

4. The rich peasants were disappointed when the civil disobedience movement was called off in 1931 without the revenue rates being revised.    

5. The Congress was closer to and supported the business class due to which the industrial working class did not participate in the movement.

Ziggurats are temples with tall towers, built by the Mesopotamia’s.

(a) Dating around 1800 BCE are tablets with  multiplication and division tables, square- and  square-root tables, and tables of compound  interest. For Example- the square root of 2 was  given as:1 + 24/60 + 51/602 + 10/603.  

(b) Students had to solve problems such as the  following: a field of area such and such is  covered one finger deep in water; find out the  volume of water.  

(c) The division of the year into 12 months  according to the revolution of the moon around  the earth, the division of the month into four  weeks, the day into 24 hours, and the hour  into 60 minutes – all that we take for granted  in our daily lives – has come to us from the  Mesopotamians.  

(d) Whenever solar and lunar eclipses were  observed, their occurrence was noted according  to year, month and day. So too there were  records about the observed positions of stars  and constellations in the night sky.  

(e) None of these momentous Mesopotamian  achievements would have been possible  without writing and the urban institution of  schools, where students read and copied earlier  written tablets, and where some boys were  trained to become not record keepers for the  administration, but intellectuals who could  build on the work of their predecessor.

Alexander defeated Porus in the battle of Hydespes or battle of Jhelum

According to J.B. Bury, “History is a science; no less and no more”.

KHEER BHAWANI

Hannibal was a Carthagean General who had scored brilliant victories, but could not capture Rome.

DEEN DAYAL UPADHYAYA

The founder of Christianity was Jesus Christ.

The Medieval period had buildings and monuments in the Romanesque and Gothic styles. Romanesque style had rounded arches, small windows, massive walls of stone and the predominance of horizontal lines. Main features of the Gothic style were pointed arches, ribbed vaulting and buttress.

Cleopatra was the Queen of Egypt. 

The Last Supper, Mona Lisa, Virgin of the Rocks, Adoration of the Magi.

The two major chemicals invented during the Industrial Revolution were Sodium carbonate and Sulphuric Acid.

In ecosystem flow of energy is Unidirectional.

Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan the pioneer of the total revolution, inspired youth during the 1970’s to revolt against the corrupt administration and travelled all over India to fight against the civil. During the 1980s, All Assam Student’s Union (AASU) fought against the corruption which threatened North Eastern States.

Today, the mood of the country especially the mood of youth is against corruption on war footing. The war against corruption is perceived the mother of all wars. Anti-corruption movement gathered moment when Anna Hazare kick-started the movement and gave a call to the youth to join him in a fight against corruption under the banner of India against corruption. (IAC)

1. Youth against corruption: Independent India has seen scams like-Bofors, Fodder scam, Share Market scam, etc., where billions of rupees of public money has been swindled by unscrupulous people. In spite of exposure of these scams, corruption still persists in all walks of life including education, health, administration, and politics.

The overall effect of the youth movement against corruption is the creation of the institution of Lokpal, passing of Acts like Right to Information (RTI), Right to Education (RTE), Sakaal, introduction of transparency in election funding, etc.,

Count De Cavour, Garibaldi, Joseph Mazzini.

Here, highest differential term is d²y/dx².

so, order of the given differential equation is 2.

As power of highest differential term is 1,

so, degree of the given differential equation is 1.

∴ Sum of order and degree of the given differential equation =2+1=3

Democratic system in India provides for impartial, free and fair elections. The framers of Indian constitution clearly made provisions for an statutory body called Election Commission to conduct elections in India. Article 324 to 329 in part XV deals with the composition, powers, and functions of the Election Commission.

The Election Commission conducts elections to the office of the President, Vice President Union Parliament, Legislature of State, Union territories and Local bodies.

1. Composition of Election commission: Article 324 provides for the office of the Election Commission of India. It consists of the Chief Election Commissioner and the other

Election Commissioners. Till 1993, it was a single-member body but later on, it became a three-member body during the Prime Ministership of Sri P.V. Narasimha Rao.

2. Appointment and Removal: According to Art 342 (2), Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners are appointed by the President of India on the advice of Union Cabinet. The term of office is 6 years or till they reach the age of 65 years.

Article 324 (6) makes provisions for the salaries, allowances and other privileges to the Chief Election Commissioners, Election Commissioners, and the Personnel. The Parliament determines their salaries from time to time.

3. Removal: According to Article 324(5), the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners can be removed from their office in the same manner as the Judges of Supreme Court, on the grounds of misbehavior and incapacity to discharge their constitutional obligations.

4. Power and functions: According to Article 324 (1), the Election Commission does the following.

1. Prepares electoral roll and its periodical revision. 

2. Holds elections to Parliament, State Legislatures and offices of President and Vice President. 

3. After the announcement of elections, it decides the time table. 

4. It conducts by-elections to vacant seats. 

5. It grants recognition to political parties as National and State parties.

According to Election Emblem Act 2000.

5. For National party: 1. 6% of valid votes in 4 or more States in LokSabha or Vidhana Sabha election and 4 LokSabha seats in any State or States or 2. Minimum 2% of Lok Sabha seats in 3 States.

6. For State party: 1. 6% of valid votes in Lok Sabha or Vidhana Sabha elections from the State and two Vidhana Sabha seats, or 2. 3% seats of total Vidhana Sabha seats in the States or success at least in three constituencies.

• It scrutinizes the nomination papers. 
• It allots symbols to political parties and independent candidates. 
• It appoints officers and other staff members to conduct election and make necessary arrangements. 
• It can order for re-poll in any constituency or any polling booth. 
• It can withhold the election results on valid grounds. 
• The President or the Governor acts on the advice of the Election Commission at the time of disqualification of members of the house.

It enforces the code of conduct for the candidates and political parties i.e. the election expenses and submission of accounts after election, environmental protection against noise pollution, etc., during elections. As per the Representation of People’s Act (RPA) of 1950 and 1951, Election Commission of India conducts the process of election.

Communalism is an ideology of the followers of one particular religion is witnessed as a homogenous and distinct group, disrespecting other religions.

Causes:

1. Policy of the British India: discriminatory policies of the East India Company regarding divide and rule, destroyed the unity between Hindus and Muslims. It was manifested in the Sepoy Mutiny (1857). During the period of Viceroy Lord Curzon, Bengal was divided (1905) on the basis of religion. Communal electorate for Muslims was .introduced during the period of Lord Minto. All these intensified the cause of communalism.

2. Hind-Muslim Nationalism: Communal organizations were formed by separatists. In 1906, Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha came into existence. Mohammad Ali Jinnah who was called as ‘Muslim Gokhale’ of India was brain washed by the Britishers. He became the champion of two nation theory based on religion. Extremists of the Indian National Congress began to assert their demands. These developments created suspicion and distrust between Hindus and Muslims before Independence.

3. Communal Riots: Large scale communal riots took place in India after Independence. Religious minorities both in India and Pakistan became victims during this situation, and were attacked and tortured. Later communal riots occurred in Bhagalpur, Meerut, Kanpur, Lucknow, Ayodhya, Ahmedabad, Mumbai and in many other places.

The demolition of Babri Majid at Ayodhya by a mob on 6^th December 1992, largely contributed for the animosity between Hindus and Muslims, and the successive events intensified the mistrust between these communities.

4. Politically manipulated: In India many issues are politically manipulated by leaders for their selfish gain. This leads to hatred among the communities.

5. Communality in organization: Different communities in India established their own organizations based on communality, to support particular political parties in their interest.

Promotion of secularism and National integration as remedy:

1. Secularism: The constitution makers adopted secularism in order to create sense of security and equality among different religious groups. The state also follows a policy of neutrality in religious matters. Article 26 provides every religious denomination or any section has the right to establish religious institutions and manage their affairs.

In December 2013, the Central Cabinet approved the “Prevention of Communal Violence (Access to justice and Reparations) Bill” to punish the offenders who instigate and indulge in communal riots. It is yet to be passed by parliament.

2. National integration: It is the process of uniting the people emotionally and politically. India is a land of diversity. It is in a limited sense to call this a single nation because it has various religion, languages, castes, cultures, etc. So for the success of Indian democracy, promotion of national integration is necessary.

To preserve and sustain National integration many provisions have been adopted in the Constitution, like National integration Council, Zonal Councils, National security Council and armed forces play a greater role in the protection of National integration.

3. Neighbourhood Peace Committees: The aftermath of Babri Masjid demolition and subsequent communal riots and social tensions in different places and ineffective Governmental measures has made it vital to establish Neighbourhood Peace Committees with eminent or prominent people as its members. These members must be nominated from each community in riot prone or communally sensitive areas.

The main objectives are arresting and containing social tensions which may flare up communal riots in the neighbourhood areas taking precautionary measures to prevent the eruption of communal clashes.

In the aftermath of conflict restoring normalcy and pacifying affected people. Establishing harmonious relationship between the communities and extending all possible help to affected people.

The Constitution of Bhutan came into force on 18^th .

States Reorganization Commission was formed in 1953.

Indian army entering Hyderabad to stop the oppressive rule of the Nizam is called Operation Polo.

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are the skills which support children’s co-ordination and movement. FMS are the building blocks for movement. The window of opportunity for children learning these skills are up to the age of 8 years old, after this age, children will find it difficult to develop these skills. The development of these skills do not happen by chance, they happen through relevant play opportunities and experiences. FMS skills include:

• Rolling
• Stopping
• Bending
• Twisting
• Landing
• Stretching
• Climbing
• Static and Dynamic Balancing
• Turning

The bacterium that causes peptic ulcers is: Helicobacter pylori.

The scientists Marshall and Warren.

1. Caste based inequality: Inequality means denying opportunities and privileges to some classes, making discrimination on the basis of caste, religion, gender, birthplace etc., Discriminating people on the grounds is prevalent in caste is caste based inequality. From the ancient period, caste based inequality in Hindu Society. Hindu society was divided into four varnas and the contents of Manu Smriti were followed.

In modern society, inequality is based on the available privileges for upper and lower castes, which also has contributed to social inequality. Varna System was based on the professions such as Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vysyas and Sudras. Gradually it got converted into caste based discrimination by the law of Manu. Later on, inequality prevailed in Hindu society.

2. Social Distance: Due to lack of interaction individual among different castes, their cultures, traditions, folkways, mores, food habits, social intercourse and so on are not known to others and not appreciated or acknowledged. Hence, it is called a closed society. It has leads to strong caste bias amongst them.

3. Illiteracy and conservation: Illiteracy and ignorance among people make them conservative and moulds them to narrow mindedness and superstitions. They believe in old customs and traditions. Such people are very orthodox in their nature. They oppose strongly to any change in society and consider their own caste as superior and others as inferior.

4. Sense of prestige: The strong desire of the people belonging to a particular cast enhances the prestige of their own, to get benefits and privileges from the society. Other castes which get neglected remain unprivileged and suffer from social status inequality.

5. Marriage restrictions: In this closed society, only endogamous marriages are accepted. Elders do not honour marriages fixed outside their subsects. In such a situation, strong caste feeling develops and leads to inequality.

Shaik Mujibur Rehman is called as ‘Banga Bandhu’.

To assist two or more states, on request for joint recruitment for any services. To conduct examinations for appointment to the services of the union and All India Services.

In 1937 in Delhi.

The Federal Court was established in New Delhi in 1937.

Federal court was established in 1937 at Delhi.

• Election is the foundation for a democratic government. 
• It is the key component to provide justice and freedom to all without any discrimination. 
• It is designed to create a popular government. 
• It gives a citizen an opportunity to have one’s voice heard and a choice by which one should be governed. This enhances the self respect and dignity of citizens to realize their importance in forming the government. 
• It is the Barometer of democracy and serves as forum for the discussion of public issues and facilitates the expression of public opinion. 
• It imparts political education and training to voters to actively participate in the activities of the nation. 
• It protects the interests of the minorities by providing representation in the legislature. 
• Election reinforces the stability and legitimacy of the political community by bringing together citizens of the nation and helps to facilitate socio-political integration.
• It makes the representatives be accountable for their performance in office and conduct. 
• It contributes to the continuation of democratic government and enables the peaceful transfer of power.

1. Junagadh: The Nawab of Junagadh declared accession to Pakistan much against the wishes of the people of the state. They were in favor of joining India. After the declaration of accession, they rose in rebellion against the Nawab. As a result, he fled to Pakistan. A Plebiscite was held in which the people voted to accede to Indian Union. Later Junagadh was merged with Saurashtra.

2. Hyderabad : Hyderabad, the largest of the Princely States was surrounded by Indian Territory. Its ruler the ‘Nizam’ wanted an independent status. He made a ‘Standstill Agreement’ with India in November 1947 to maintain the status quo which existed before 1947. But the Indian Government felt that an independent Hyderabad would pose security threats.

In the meantime, there was a movement against the oppressive rule of the Nizam. The peasantry and the women joined in large numbers. His paramilitary forces named Razakars, raped, maimed, looted, murdered and targeted the non Muslims. To end this anarchy, the Indian army entered into Hyderabad in September 1948. This police action is known as ‘Operation Polo’. The Nizam surrendered and it was followed by complete accession of Hyderabad into Indian Union.

The Electronic Voting Machine(EVM) is one of the important innovations of modem technology. It has replaced the system of ballot box and ballot papers with the most effective Electronic Voting Machine. EVM consists of a controlling Unit and a Balloting Unit and both are interconnected with a cable.

The balloting unit is kept in the place where voters exercise votes. The controlling unit is with the polling officer. After the voter proves his identity, by pressing the blue button on the balloting unit against the candidate’s symbol he casts his vote. With the beeping sound, the voting procedure gets completed.

Uses of EVM:

1. EVM can be easily operated and saves time. 

2. It is simple to operate by the voter to cast vote. 

3. Quick and accurate results. 

4. Economic and Eco If friendly. 

5. Avoids invalid votes. 

6. Control of irregularities. 

7. NOTA option is provided.

The Act introduced provincial Autonomy. It was introduced in 11 provinces viz. Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar, Central Provinces, Assam, The North Western Frontier province, Orissa and Sind.

The provinces were administered by the ministers. The difference between the reserved and transferred subjects was dropped. All subjects were placed under the charge of Ministers who were made responsible to and removable by the legislative Assembly.

Thus the executive was responsible to legislature. The Legislature relations between the Central government and the Provinces were regulated according to three lists of subjects provided under the Act.

1. However, Dominion status which was promised by the Simon Commission in 1929, was not conferred by this Act. 

2. The intention to establish “Federation of India” did not materialize because of the opposition for merger from the rulers of the Princely States.

3. The degree of Provincial Autonomy introduced at the provisional level was limited as Central government retained important powers and control. The Governor was given pivotal position, with discretionary powers on important matters. He was not bound by the advice of ministers. Thus the claim of conferring provincial autonomy was very, limited.

The nature of Indian party system can. be traced back to the Indian National Movement. Indian National Congress (INC) was founded by A.O. Hume in 1885. It was a forum to unite the people of India to fight against British Imperialism. Due to ideological differences, Muslim League was founded in 1906.

Other parties like Hindu Maha Sabha, Communist Party of India, Forward Block and Praja Socialist Party, etc., emerged in the successive years. Later, in the post-independence period, Jan Sangh, Janatha Party, Bharatiya Janatha Party, Janata Dal, Nationalist Congress Party, according to the needs of the time and they started to work to get power, etc were floated.

1. Extra Constitutional growth : There is no reference in the Constitution of India about M how many political parties are to exist in the country. According to Article 19 of the Constitution, all citizens can have the freedom to form associations or unions. Political parties are established on the basis of this liberty. Hence, political parties have no constitutional base.

2. Prevalence of Multi-party system : India is a divergent country with many religions, tribes, languages, culture, and traditions. This heterogeneity leads to the emergence of many political parties to protect their interests in the mainstream of the country.

3. Spilt and merger : It is a common phenomenon in the Indian party system. Various reasons contributed for this split like ideological differences, egoism, power hunger, etc.

4. End of single-party era: India was under Congress rule till 1977. The happenings between 1975-1977, forced small parties to unite and fight against Congress and capture power and put an end to the single-party era.

5. Dissident activities: Meanness of leaders like personal attitudes, favoritism, nepotism leads to dissident activities. Repetition of such happenings instigates leaders to go against the ideology of the party and paves way to political instability.

6. Defection: Elected members of the Legislature change their parties often for personal benefits or differences of opinion and other reasons. It ruins the values of democracy and destabilizes the government.

7. Leader worship: Most of the political parties in India emphasize the leaders rather than the ideologies of the parties. The leader decides the destiny of the political party e.g. Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi of Congress, A.B. Vajpayee of BJR Leaders with charisma dominate the whole party.

8. Alliances without principles: Political parties are formed with principles of democracy and secularism but they ignore them for want of power and make unholy alliances.

9. Dominance of Regional parties: The presence of regional parties during the first general elections did not influence the voters and they were rejected. During 1980s, they emerged very strong and dominated the political scenario, e.g. DMK, ALADMK, Telugu Desam, Shiv Sena, National Conference, AGP, JD(S), RJD, SJP, BJD and other parties playing a significant role during the formation of Governments.

10. Religious, Lingual and Regionalism: The basis of political parties in India is religion, language, regionalism and the like. e.g. Muslim league, Akalidal, Shiv Sena, DMK, AIADMK, Maharashtra Ekikaran Samiti (MES) Telangana Rashtriya Samiti (TRS) and others. In spite of the rules of the Election Commission, such political parties exist.

11. Leftist and Rightist Parties: Party system in India consists of Leftist and Rightist ideologies, e.g. CPI, CPI (M), Forward Block, RPI and Socialist parties who have belief in revolutionary ideology and drastic changes in the system form the left front. Parties like Congress, BJP, SP, NCP, BSP, RJD, JD (U), JD (S) and others who believe in moderate changes in the system form the right front.

12. The era of coalition: When no single political party secures absolute majority like minded political parties come together and join as a single largest group to form a coalition Government. The era of coalition started during 1977 when Janata Party came to power headed by Sri Morarjee Desai as Prime Minister at the center along with other parties. This was followed by National Front, United Front, NDA, UPA, etc.

Political implications:

The successive Governments have taken measures to reduce the problems of peasants by the following methods.

1. Agricultural Loans:

• National Crop Insurance Programme (NCIP). 
• National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS). 
• Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme. (WBCS) 
• Primary Land Development Bank (PLD).

2. National Agriculture Scheme: For agricultural improvements, National Development Council (NDC) has made enormus arrangements in 2007 and National Agriculture scheme was implemented with a view to enhance 4% in agricultural production. The main objective of this plan is to determine agricultural policy of all the states and provide essential facilities.

3. Waiving of debts: When farmers are not able to get the yield to their expectations they cannot clear the debts. To uplift the farmers from debts the Governement have taken necessary measures to waive the debts of farmers. This has reduced the suicide and death rate of farmers.

4. Establishment of Peasant Liason centres: To protect farmers from low quality seeds, fertilizers and protect crops from diseases, Peasant Liason centres are opened to provide necessary implements and information related, at Hobli level.

5. Veterinary services: Government is proving veterinary services to the livestock which also supports agriculture. Though encouraging dairying and saavayava Krishi (Organic agriculture) which are allied sectors.

6. Land Reforms Act: National Land Reforms Act was implemented in Karnataka in 1974 when Sri Devaraj Urs was the Chief Minister of Karnataka. Land reforms Act of 2013 provides more compensation to Landowners, rehabilitation and settlement facilities, retaining the ownership of land with farmers, no forceful acquisition of agricultural land till the final settlement facilities, retaining the ownership of land with farmers, no forceful acquisition of agricultural lands till the final settlement. Providing the same quantum of land elsewhere in the case of SCs and STs.

Japan, Australia.

The Deputy Commissioner. (DC) is the head of U the District. He also acts as the District Magistrate Superintendent of police (SP), District Treasury Officer. Deputy Director of Pre University Education, Social Welfare Officer, Deputy Director of Public Instruction District Medical Officer, Deputy Registrar and other functions under the jurisdiction of the Deputy Commissioner. 

The Deputy Commissioner performs the following functions.

1. Law and order and Magisterial powers: Deputy Commissioner enjoys magisterial powers. Being the District Magistrate, he maintains law and order and performs other judicial functions in the district.

2. Revenue functions: It includes maintenance of Land Records and its assessment, collection of Land Revenue and other public dues and settlement of land disputes. Assistant Commissioners and Tahsildars work under the overall supervision and control of the Deputy Commissioner.

3. Development Functions: It includes Public Health, Educational Rural Development, Social Welfare (Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe) and Welfare of Backward Classes and Minorities and Protection of Weaker sections of the Society.

4. Regulatory Functions: It includes control, regulation, and distribution of Food and Civil Supplies and essential commodities. He also controls the matters relating to excise, stamps, and registration.

5. Electoral Functions: Deputy Commissioner is the District Election Officer and he is in charge of elections to Parliament, State Legislature and Local bodies.

India is considered as world’s largest democracy.

The Constitution of India provides for the establishment of a Public Service Commission for each state or two or more states jointly, Accordingly, the Karnataka Public Service Commission was set up consisting of a Chairman and such other members to be determined by the Governor of the state from time to time.

At least half of the Members of the Commission should have Administrative experience with a minimum of 10 years service of the state. The remaining members must be men representing varied interests of the community. 

At present, there is a Chairman and nine members.

1. Appointment: The Chairman and the members of the KPSC are appointed by the Governor, on the recommendations of the State Cabinet.

2. Term: The Chairman and the members of the KPSC are appointed for a period of six years or till they attain the age of 62 years whichever is earlier. The members of the KPSC are not eligible P for reappointment to hold office in the KPSC after retirement.

3. Removal: The Chairman and other members of the State Commission can be removed under the same circumstances as applicable to the Chairman and members of the UPSC.

Functions: 

1. To conduct competitive examinations for the recruitment of candidates to state services. 

2. To conduct departmental exami- nations for promotions. 

3. To prepare rules of recruitment, promotion and transfer of civil servants from one service to another. 

4. To advise the State Government on all matters relating to problems of Civil Services in the state. 

5. To submit annual reports regarding its working to the state Governor.

The Union Government appointed one more Commission headed by Sri B.P. Mandal in 1979. It submitted its report in 1980 and came into effect on 7^th August 1990. It identified 3743 Castes and Communities as Backward which formed 52% of the total population. 

Some of the recommendations of the Commission are :

1. The Other Backward Classes (OBC’s) have to be provided 27% reservation in employment. It encompasses the services that come under the jurisdiction of both Central and State governments including technical and professional institutions.

2. If the OBCs are selected in open competition, they should not be brought under 27% reservation and have to be treated as general. This also applies to promotion. 

3. In case of backlog, it should be preserved for three years. 

4. The maximum age limit should be enhanced for an appointment like that of SCs and STs.

Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese PM Zhou- en-Lai signed Panchasheel on 29^th April 1954.

The process of choosing representatives to public office is called election.

5^th of June is celebrated as the World Environment Day.