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1. Division of Powers: A federal government is characterized by the existence of two governments- the centre and the local government created on the basis of division of powers. Both are independent and autonomous within their spheres of powers and yet interdependent. The residuary powers rests with the centre in some states (e.g. India) and in the hands of local units in some states (e.g. Great Britain).

2. Supremacy of the constitution: In a Federal system, the power enjoyed by the centre and local units is original because both derive their powers from the constitution. This avoids any confusion or contention in sharing of power. The division of powers is based on necessity and convenience

3. Written and rigid constitution: The constitution in a federal government would definitely be rigid because it has to deal with powers related to both centre and local governments. Each and every’ detail should be explained in a written form in order to avoid any clash of jurisdiction or possible over-lapping of responsibilities. The amendment procedure would be rigid which protects the interest of the federation from frequent, mindless changes to the constitution.

4. Special provision for settlement of disputes: In a presidential system, in order to settle disputes arising between the states or between centre and the states, the judiciary has been assigned the job of interpreting the provisions of the constitution, thus acting as custodian and guardian of the constitution.

5. Power of amendment: In a presidential system, to amend the constitution both the centre and the local governments have been assigned with equal powers. No constitutional amendment can be made without the consent of federal units.

1. Division of Powers: A federal government is characterized by the existence of two governments- the center and the local government created on the basis of division of powers. Both are independent and autonomous within their spheres of powers and yet interdependent. The residuary powers rest with the center in some states (e.g. India)and in the hands of local units in some states (e.g. Great Britain).

2. Supremacy of the constitution: In a Federal system, the power enjoyed by the centre and local units is original because both derive their powers from the constitution. This avoids any confusion or contention in the sharing of power. The division of powers is based on necessity and convenience.

3. Written and rigid constitution: The constitution in a federal government would definitely be rigid because it has to deal with powers related to both center and local governments. Each and every detail should be explained in a written form in order to avoid any clash of jurisdiction or possible over-lapping of responsibilities. The amendment procedure would be rigid which protects the interest of the federation from frequent, mindless changes to the constitution.

4. Special provision for settlement of disputes: In a presidential system, in order to settle disputes arising between the states or between centre and the states, the judiciary has been assigned the job of interpreting the provisions of the constitution, thus acting as custodian and guardian of the constitution.

5. Power of amendment: In a presidential system, to amend the constitution both the centre and the local governments have been assigned equal powers. No constitutional amendment can be made without the consent of federal units.

D. Self-help groups

The correct answer is Pottery type.

• 'NBPW' refers to pottery type.
• The Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) is a pottery type from Ancient India, dating to the millennia Before Common Era (BCE).
• NBPW is known for its lustrous black finish and the varieties of organic forms it was made into.
• It is glossy, shining type pottery.
• It was made of fine fabric and served as tableware for the richer class. Considered deluxe pottery only found with the elites revealing societal stratification which was a result of Brahmanical hegemony.
• This pottery continued to exist during the Mahajanapada era.

B. Gender discrimination

The correct answer is 40% protein and 20% oil.

• Soybean seeds contain 40% of crude protein and about 20% of fat.
• The soybean is one of the most economical and valuable agricultural commodities because of its unique chemical composition.
• Since time immemorial, Soyabean has served as meat, milk, cheese, bread as well as oil for people across the globe.
• Soyabean is India’s one of the fastest-growing crops and a significant foreign exchange earner.

D. All of the above

The correct answer is Lentil.

• Lentil is not a Kharif Crop among the given options.

• India has many growing seasons due to the prevalence of high temperatures over a long period. The different crop seasons are:​
• Kharif Crop​
  • Crops are sown at the beginning of the southwest monsoon and harvested at the end of the South-West monsoon.
  • Sown in June-July when rains first begin.
  • Harvested in September-October.
  • Requires a lot of water and hot weather to grow.
  • Important crops: Jowar, Bajra, Soybean, Rice, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Groundnut, Sugarcane.
• Rabi crop
  • Crops need a relatively cool climate during the period of growth but a warm climate during the germination of their seed and maturation.
  • Sown in October-November.
  • Harvested in April-May.
  • Important Crops: Wheat, Barley, Gram, Linseed, Mustard, Masur, Lentil and Potatoes, Tobacco.

B. Economic Welfare

The correct answer is Chirand​.

• Chirand is the early farming site located on the northern bank of the river Ganga together with two other rivers Sarayu and Son.
• Chirand is an archaeological site in the Saran district of Bihar.
• It is the first known site of the Neolithic age.
• It has a large pre-historic mound (a rounded mass projecting above a surface) containing various artifacts.
• The mound is known for its continuous archaeological record from the Neolithic age (about 2500–1345 BC) to the reign of the Pala Dynasty, which ruled this place during the pre-medieval period.
• This is probably one of the youngest date of early farming known from the Gangetic basin.

• T. Narsipur is a place located in the Mysore district in the Indian state of Karnataka.
• This is the place in South India where Kumbhamela is held every three years.
• The word 'Narasipura' is the name of the town, which is derived from the famous Gunja Narasimhaswamy temple that is located on the right bank of the Kabini river.

B. Reserve Bank of India 

The root of the term constitution is the Latin word ‘Constituere’.

Gandhi believed that the British would withdraw from India if the Hindu and Muslims fight united.

The President of India appoints the judges of the Supreme court on the advice of the council of ministers in consultation with the Chief Justice of India. Article 124 which deals with the appointment of judges, makes it obligatory on the part of the President of India to consult the Chief Justice of India.

In appointing the Chief Justice of India, the President shall, besides the advice of the council of ministers, consult the judges of the Supreme Court and the High courts if he considers it necessary. But, neither the constitution nor the law provides for Chief Justice’s recommendation as to his successor.

It is a practice sanctioned by convention. Normally, the Chief Justice of India is appointed from among the senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.

The following are the powers of the Supreme Court:

1. Original Jurisdiction: Article 131 of the constitution deals with the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is so exclusive that no court in India can take up cases falling under the original jurisdiction.

The original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is purely federal in character. Matters relating to the problems and disputes arising between the union and the states or between the states are taken up by the Supreme Court.

The disputes entertained under the original jurisdiction are:

• A dispute involving the Government of India Vs the state of Union of India. 
• A dispute involving the Government of India plus one or more states Vs one or more states. 
• A dispute involving one or more states on one side Vs one or more states on the other.

2. Appellate Jurisdiction: The Supreme Court is the highest court in India. Under Appellate jurisdiction, the Supreme court only takes up such cases that come on appeal. It has no power to take up such cases, which it is not asked to take up.

The appellate jurisdiction can be studied under the following three heads:

a. Constitutional Cases: The cases that come before the Supreme court are as follows: The cases involving a question of law relating to the interpretation of the constitution or certification by the High court. The Supreme Court can take up a case if the High court in its opinion feels that the case involves substantial question of law, which should be decided by the Supreme court.

b. Civil Cases : Originally Article 133 provided for an appeal against the high court order if it certified that the amount involved was less than Rs. 20,000 and the case is fit for appeal. But, the Law Commission found the logic unreasonable and as a result, the 30th Amendment of 1972 did away with the ceiling of Rs. 20,000.

The Supreme Court can take up the civil appeal if the High court certifies that the case involves a substantial question law of general importance. The certification by the High court is essential in these cases.

c. Criminal Cases: Article 134 provide for an appeal to the Supreme court against the judgment of the High Court under the following conditions:

• If the High Court has reversed a decision of release of an accused and has given him a death sentence. 
• In a case where the High court has exercised the authority of a lower court and given a death sentence to the accused. 
• In any criminal case if the High court certifies that the case is fit for appeal in the Supreme Court.

3. Special Leave Jurisdiction: Article 136 confers a special power in the hands of the Supreme Court to grant special leave. In hearing appeals the Supreme Court may grant Special Leave petition against any judgment or order made by any court or tribunal, except military tribunal, in a case. The decision is entirely left to the discretion of the Supreme Court. This power, however, is to be used only under exceptional circumstances like matters involving general public interest or in cases of grave injustice or cases in which no appeal is otherwise provided by law.

4. Advisory Jurisdiction: Article 143 confers the power of advisory opinion. In order to break authoritative opinion, the President of India may seek the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court on the matter which is, in his opinion, important and necessary such as disputes arising out of treaty of agreement.

However, the advice of the Supreme Court is purely advisory in nature and it is up to the executive to accept it or not. The Supreme Court may decline to give advisory opinion if it finds unnecessary.

5. Power of Judicial Review: The supremacy of the Supreme Court as the guardian of the constitution is emphasized by the power of judicial review. The Supreme court has the power of declaring a law made by the legislature or executive action as ultra vires (intra vires) or null and void’ or ‘unconstitutional if it is not in tune with the provisions of the constitution or violative of the fundamental law of the land.

This acts as an effective, check on both the legislature and the executive as any decision made or action taken whimsically without regard to the constitution is declared invalid.

6. The Court of Records: The proceedings and judgments of the Supreme Court are kept preserved to be made use of in future cases and judgments, 

whenever necessary by the lower courts. Those decisions are authoritative records on law whose validity cannot be questioned in any court. The courts of records also have the power to correct its own clerical errors.

7. The Contempt of court: The Supreme Court enjoys the authority of imposing fines or imprisonment for violating the orders of the court (Article 129).

8. Self-correcting Court: The Supreme Court has the power of correcting its own judgments. This is to ensure any loss or damage, physical, emotional or material that may be caused to any person seeking justice. To put it in legal terms, this is to ensure against ‘miscarriage of justice’.

9. Guardian of the Constitution: The Supreme Court enjoys the privilege of protecting », the constitution against violation of its provision either by the government or by the people, It is the responsibility of the Supreme Court to see that the laws of the constitution are respected and adhered to by all in India. By acting as the watchtower of the constitution, it checks against the violation of laws.

As guardian of the constitution, the Supreme Court also exercises the power of interpreting. the contents of the constitution. Any matter relating to technical interpretation of details or definitions of terms in the constitution is the sole prerogative of the Supreme Court.

10. Enforcement of Fundamental Rights: The Supreme Court is empowered by the constitution to act as the protector and guarantor of the fundamental rights. Under Article 32, the Supreme Court enjoys the power of issuing constitutional writs, also called as writ jurisdiction, for the enforcement of fundamental rights. The writs may be against the government or individuals.

The writs are briefly explained as follows: 

a. Habeas Corpus: This literally means ‘to have a body’. It calls upon the authority’, which arrests a person to produce in court, the person to set him free if he has done nothing wrong. It protects an individual against wrongful confinement. 

b. Mandamus: This literally means a command. It is a command issued by the court asking a person to perform his legal duty, which is of public nature.

c. Prohibition: It is a writ issued by the Supreme court to an inferior court restraining it from exercising powers which is not invested in them.

d. Certiorari: It is a writ by which a case is removed from a lower court, which does note no jurisdiction to deal with it.

e. Quo warranto: This writ is issued to prevent a person from illegally occupying a ’ public office to which he is not entitled.

11. Defender of the Federation: The constitution vests the power of settling the disputes and problems between the centre and the states. In order to prevent the conflict of power between the two, the Supreme Court interprets the laws, which help in maintaining the unity of the federation.

12. Miscellaneous functions: 

The following are the miscellaneous functions of the Supreme

1. The Supreme Court has the power of regulating the practice and procedure of the court. 

2. It appoints its own clerical establishment and exercises supervision over lower courts. 

3. The Supreme Court decides matters relating to the election of the President and Vice-president. 

4. The Supreme Court if satisfied, may withdraw a case on its own or on appeal pending before one or more High courts on a matter involving substantial question of law of general importance (Article 139) 

5. The Supreme Court, if necessary, can transfer any case pending before any High court to any other High court. 

6. The Supreme Court may also transfer a criminal case from one high court to the

Children working below the age group of 14 years in industries, mines, etc. are deprived from getting basic education.

1. The President may declare internal emergency under Article 352, if, in his opinion, there is a threat to India’s security due to war or external aggression.

2. The President may impose ‘President’s Rule’ under Article 356 if he is convinced that in that particular state the law and order have completely deteriorated and it cannot be governed as per the constitution. Though the President’s rule is imposed on the recommendation of the governor of the concerned state, it is not compulsory.

3. If the President is convinced that the financial stability and prestige of the nation are at risk, he may impose a financial emergency under Article 360. However, the imposition of internal and financial emergency should be placed before Parliament and its consent was taken within 2 months of the declaration of emergency, otherwise, it is considered invalid.

Warren Hastings.

Gender discrimination or Gender inequality.

Features:

1. Coalition is the product of multiparty system. 

2. It is a democratic arrangement. 

3. It challenges single party dominance and in which smaller parties come together to defeat bigger ones in elections and snatch power. 

4. Coalition may be a pre-poll arrange mentor a post-poll arrangement.

Sri Achal Kumar Joti is the present Chief Election Commissioner of India.

The functions of the Chief Minister is so powerful that he is referred to as “the first among equals” (Primus intersperses). Article 164 of the constitution states that “there shall be a Council of ministers headed by the Chief Minister for the state”.

The Chief Minister is elected from among the members of the majority party in Vidhana Sabha. In case no party enjoys majority it is left to the discretion of the Governor to pick the Chief Minister, who in his opinion will prove majority in a stipulated time. Traditionally, the Chief Minister should be from the Vidhanasabha.

1. Formation of Ministry: The primary task of the Chief Minister on assuming office is the formation of Council of ministers. Normally ministers are picked from the same political formation to ensure uniformity and continuity of policy. However, nothing prevents the Chief Minister from picking anyone as minister from any party.

The Chief Minister enjoys the authority to pick and choose his ministry because he is responsible for efficiency and performance of the government.

2. Allocation of Portfolios: After forming the ministry the next important task is allocation of responsibilities to ministers. Certain key or heavyweight portfolios such Home, Revenue, Finance, Industry, Public works are to be given to key and heavyweights who enjoy clout and following among party worker. Also to ensure efficiency and stability of the government. The Chief Minister enjoys the power of expanding and reforming the ministry. 

3. Chairman of the Cabinet: The cabinet meetings are held under the chairmanship of the Chief Minister. The cabinet is a deliberating forum and differences may come up. It is the responsibility of the Chief Minister to mediate and soften things and arrive at decisions.

The Chief Minister has the authority to decide the matters to be taken up by the cabinet and may accept or reject proposals. Normally the proposals brought by ministers for discussion are not rejected. In the era of coalition politics, it is a challenge for the Chief Minister to hold the flock together. It is very difficult to chair a cabinet meeting full of divergent views, ideologies, and principles.

4. Leader of Vidhana Sabha: Chief Minister is the leader of Vidhana sabha. All major decisions and announcements of the state government are made by the Chief Minister. It is the responsibility of the Chief Minister to ensure that all bills brought before Vidhana sabha for approval are passed.

And he has to defend the government on the floor of the house. Though ministers are individually responsible to their ministries, it is the Chief minister who provides general leadership and direction. If any minister makes a mistake, the Chief Minister has the power to guide and correct him.

5. Leader of the Government: The decisions of the government however good, are subjected to scrutiny and criticism. The opposition parties lose their identity if they do not criticize the government. So to guard against it, the Chief Minister, as leader of the government has to defend policies and programmes of the government both in and out of legislature.

6. Coordination and Supervision: In running the administrative machinery Chief Minister will have to encounter numerous problems ranging from routine to serious. Under the circumstances, it is essential to integrate different departments and see that they work smoothly and the ability of the Chief Minister is tested on this count.

A Chief Minister should not only pick a team but also retain it as a team till the end of the term. Whenever problems arise between departments, he has to meditate and sort it out amicably through dialogue and goodwill.

The Chief Minister is the general head of the government. Hence he has the responsibility of supervising the administration. Though each minister is in charge of a ministry, lack of general supervision results in poor administrative quality.

To maintain quality in administration, the Chief Minister will have to supervise it, not only gives him a general feel of the administration but also makes the ministers more responsible. The Chief Minister may correct the working of a particular ministry and offer suggestions.

7. Bridge between the Governor and the State Legislature: The Chief Minister acts as a link between the Governor and state legislature in a parliamentary government. As all executive powers are vested in the hands of the Crovemor, the Chief Minister is duty bound to keep the Governor informed about the decisions taken by the government.

Also, the Governor himself can call for any information from the government. The Chief Minister not only acts as a bridge but also as the advisor to the President. Whenever necessary the President will look forward for advice. For example, the Governor seeks the advice L of the Chief Minister before dissolving Vidhana sabha.

8. Power of Dissolution: The Vidhana sabha exists as long as the Chief Minister wishes because even before the expiry of 5 years term, Chief Minister may seek the dissolution of Vidhana sabha. The Vidhana sabha may be dissolved if deep differences surfaced within the government or within the ruling party or the government loses a motion of no confidence.

9. Power of Appointment: Though civil appointments are made by the Governor, it is based on recommendation of the Chief Minister.

Communalism creates social differences, mutual suspicion and fear in the society and integrity and unity of a nation.

The term coalition is derived from the Latin words ‘Co’ which means together and ‘alescere’ which means to grow up. It is an act of coalescing or uniting into one body or a union of parties. When different political forces join together, coalition is formed. Coalition politics is a system of governance by a group of political parties or by several political parties. A coalition Government means the formation of a Government by a Group or alliance of political parties.

Features:

1. Coalition is the product of multiparty system. 

2. It is a democratic arrangement. 

3. It challenges single-party dominance and in which smaller parties come together to defeat bigger ones in elections and snatch power. 

4. Coalition may be a pre-poll arrange mentor a post-poll arrangement. 

5. Alliance partners prefer to have a Common Minimum Programme (CMP) for governance. 

6. During national emergency or crisis, a national Government is formed through coalition. 

7. Coalition deteriorates the supreme status of the Prime Minister who heads the Government. 

8. A person agreeable not only to the big party but also to the alliance partners becomes the leader of the house and naturally heads the Government. 

9. Coalition partners are always free to cease their relations and fight on one’s own identity.

10. Around 70 coalitions have been formed in our country since 1937, and it is said that coalitions are politically unstable.

The political implications of privatisation are as follows:

1. Concentration of Wealth: Privatisation encourages the concentration of wealth in the hands of big business groups. It results in great disparities of income and wealth. It goes against the principle of egalitarian society. 

2. More profits: Corporate sectors generate more profits. But they share a meagre percentage with the shareholders. They enjoy the lion’s share out of the shareholders’ investment. As a result, the gap between the rich and the poor gets widened.

3. Bane to local industries: Local people borrow money from indigenous banks and also get loans from government concerns with subsidised rates of interest to start an industry. Multi-national companies with good financial back up survive even in case of loss.

4. Threat to national interest: Key areas of Nation like Defence, Space, Science and ‘ Technology are to be retained with the Government. Assigning these areas to private sector may harm National interests.

5. Lack of service motto: The private firms are concerned more about their profit rather than providing good service conditions to their staff and do not bother about extending welfare programmes to their employees and even to the society.

6. No job security: Private companies extract work from employees as long as they are fit. They ruthlessly sack them when they suffer from ill health or fitness problems. In the long run, they become a burden to the Government. The employees of private sectors suffer from job insecurity and this results in psychological disorders.

The Basic principles mentioned in Article 2 of the Character are:

1. The UN is based on the Sovereign equality of all its members. 

2. All members shall fulfill in good faith the U.N Charter obligations. 

3. They shall settle international disputes. by peaceful means. 

4. They have to retain their international relations from the threat or use of force against other states. 

5. They have to extend all help to the actions being taken by the UN.

6. The UN shall ensure that States who are not members, act in accordance with the principles of the UN. 

7. The Organisation shall not intervene in matters essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any State.

Privatization is the process of transferring ownership of a business enterprises, agency, public service or public properly’ from the public sector to the private sector.

Political implications of liberalization are as follows:

1. Concentration of wealth: Privatization encourages concetration of wealth in the hands of big business group. It results in great disparities of income and wealth. It goes against the principle of egalitarian society.

2. More profits: Corporate sectors generate more profits. But they share a meagre percentage with the share holders. They enjoy the lion’s share out of share holder’s investment. As a result, the gap between the rich and the poor is widened.

3. Bane to local industries: Local people borrow money from indigenous banks and also get loans from government concerns with subsidized rates of interest to start an industry. Multi-national Companies with good financial backup, survive even in case of loss.

4. Threat to National interest: Key areas like national defence, space, science, and technology are to be retained with the Government. Assigning these areas to private sector harms national interests.

5. Lack of service motto: The private firms are concerned more about their profit rather than providing good service conditions and extending welfare programmes to their employees and even to the society.

6. No job security: Private companies extract work from employees till they are fit. The Companies ruthlessly sack them when they suffer from ill health or fitness problems. In the long run, they become a burden on the government. The employees of private sectors suffer from the insecurity of jobs and this results in psychological disorders.

Communalism is an ideology of the followers of one particular religion considers the followers of other religions as inferior. Particular religion is witnessed as a homogenous and distinct group, disrespecting other religions. 

Communalism as a threat to Indian Democracy.

1. Threat to National Integrity: Hostility among various religious groups is a serious threat to national unity and integrity in India. Partition of subcontinent on religious differences in 1947 has adversely affected social harmony in India. This is continued among both religious communities and leads to communalism in democratic Government.

2. Threat of Nationalism and Patriotism: Communalism leads to various forms of religious fundamentalism and orthodox. Religious fundamentalists exploit their community people. breeds bigotry and religious identity. In such a social environment, national and patriotic feelings are marginalized and even forgotten. Therefore, communalism endangers nationalism and patriotism.

3. Impediment to National Development: Lack of National outlook, secular attitude, and holistic approach sometimes lead to their selfish ends of few religious leaders. Through their provocative speeches and writings create communal disturbances that naturally affect the national development programmes.

4. Weak Political Leadership: Political parties and leadership have failed to arrest and contain communalism in India. Communal politics emerged by Political parties which influenced by caste and communal considerations of voters and creates opportunities to indecisive and weak political leadership.

5. Threat to National sovereignty: A Nation which experiences chronic internal conflicts and socioreligious divisions may become a weak country. Gradually it may lead to foreign invasion and threat to sovereignty. “United we stand, divided we fall” is the dictum to be remembered by the people and political leaders of India. Otherwise, our national sovereignty may disappear.

Siimithra Mahajan is the present speaker of Lok sabha.

Correct option is C) through

Correct option is B) up

Correct option is C) about

(d) All of these

Correct option is B) on

During and after India’s transition to independence in 1947, Lohia continued to play an active role in its politics. At loggerheads with Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on several issues, however, Lohia and other CSP members left the Congress in 1948. He became a member of the Praja Socialist Party upon its formation in 1952 and served as general secretary for a brief period, but internecine conflicts led to his resignation in 1955. Later that year Lohia established a new Socialist Party, for which he became chairman as well as the editor of its journal, Mankind. A spellbinding orator and a passionate and perceptive writer, he advocated for various sociopolitical reforms in his capacity as party leader, including the abolition of the caste system, the adoption of Hindi as India’s national language, and stronger protection of civil liberties. In 1963 Lohia was elected to the Lok Sabha (the lower house of parliament), where he was noted for his sharp criticism of government policies. Although his parliamentary influence was ultimately limited, his progressive views, which he expressed in numerous publications, proved inspirational to many Indians.

Correct option is A) in

Correct option is C) up

(a) The name of the poem is ‘My Mother at Sixty-Six’ and the poet is Kamala Das. 

(b) The poet realised that her mother was getting old and was nearing her impending death. She felt afraid of losing her mother, the same fear which she used to face in her childhood. 

(c) The poet at once turned her face away from the harsh reality and looked out of the window to divert her mind. 

(d) The poet.saw green trees sprinting by. She also saw a group of children who were exuberant, enthusiastic and were merrily coming out of their houses.

(a) The poet was driving to Cochin airport from her parent’s home. 

(b) Her mother’s face had lost all its glow and colour. It was nearly lifeless. That is why it was looking like a corpse’s face. 

(c) The poet noticed that her mother was sleeping with her mouth open. Her face looked like that of a corpse. She suddenly realised that her mother had become very old. 

(d) The realisation that her mother had grown very old was painful because it brought with it the distressing thought that she was also nearing her death, whose cruel hands would separate the poet from her mother.

1. D)How to strike a balance between duties and responsibilities

2. D) Kamala Das

3. A) for its originality, versatility and flavor of the soil

4. D)Theme of advancing age and fears associated with it

Correct option is C) saw through