Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

The word Non-Alignment was first used by V.K. Krishna Menon in his speech at the U.N.O in 1953.

Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan the pioneer of the total revolution, inspired youth during 1970’s to revolt against the corrupt administration and travelled all over India to fight against the evil. During 1980s, All Assam Student’s Union (AASU) fought against the corruption which threatened North Eastern States.

Today, the mood of the country especially the mood of youth is against corruption on war footing. The war against corruption is perceived the mother of all wars. Anti corruption movement gathered moment when Anna Hazare kick started the movement and gave a call to the youth to join him in a fight against corruption under the banner of India against corruption. (IAC)

Youth against corruption: Independent India has seen scams like-Bofors, Fodder scam, Share Market scam etc., where billions of rupees of public money has been swindled by unscrupulous people. Inspite of exposure of these scams, corruption still persists in all walks of life including education, health, administration and politics.

The overall effect of the youth movement against corruption is the creation of the institution of Lokpal, passing of Acts like Right to Information (RTI), Right to Education (RTE), Sakaal, introduction of transparency in election funding etc.

Andrei Sakharov and Boris Yeltsin were the human rights activists of Russia.

Central Treaty Organisation or Baghdad Pact members are Iraq, Turkey, Iran, England and Pakistan.

Triple Alliance and Triple Entente were the two rival alliances formed during the First World War. 

Garibaldi was called the Sword of Italian Unification. He established the Red Shirt Army. 

Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. 

The aim of young Italy Was to train the Italians and make them aware of their great past. It stood for unity and independence and wanted liberty, equality and humanity.

The correct hierarchical arrangement of taxonomic categories in ascending order is
Species → Genus → Family → Order → Class → Phylum → Kingdom
Therefore, both (a) and (c) represent correct sequences of taxonomic categories. In sequence (b), species should be followed by genus. Therefore, it does not represent the correct sequence.

Liberty, Equality and Fraternity are the watch words of French Revolution.Liberty, Equality and Fraternity are the watch words of French Revolution.

In biological terms, species is the basic taxonomical rank. It can be defined as a group of similar organisms that are capable of interbreeding under natural conditions to produce fertile offspring.
Therefore, a group of similar individuals that are respectively isolated form a species.
Species can also be defined as group of individuals that share the same gene pool.

(i) Phylum
Phylum is the primary division of kingdom. It includes one or more related classes of animals. In plants, instead of phylum, the term ‘division’ is used.
(ii) Class
Class is a taxonomic group consisting of one or more related orders.
For example, the class, Mammalia, includes many orders.
(iii) Family
Family is a taxonomic group containing one or more related genera. In plants, families are categorized on the basis of vegetative and reproductive features.
(iv) Order
Order is a taxonomic group containing one or more families.
For example, the order, carnivore, includes many families.
(v) Genus
Genus is a taxonomic group including closely related species.
For example, the genus, Solanum, includes many species such as nigrum, melongena, tuberosum, etc.

Industrial Revolution first began in United Kingdom.

The red shirts were started by Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Egyptian and Indus valley civilizations were two ancient civilizations.

1. He increased the strength of the Senate and reduced its power. 

2. He distributed public lands and provided employment to the poor. 

3. He extended citizenship rights to provincial subjects.

Bismarck said that ‘The great questions of the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority decisions but by Iron and blood’. This became popular as the ‘Blood and Iron’ policy of Bismarck.

The works of Karl Marx are ‘Das Capital’ and ‘Communist Manifesto’.

The French Revolution began in 1789.

The two important works of Jawaharlal Nehru are ‘Discovery of India’ and ‘The Glimpses of World History’. 

SALT: Strategic Arms Limitations Talks.

Politicians need historical knowledge in implementing administrative reforms. There are plenty of job opportunities at Museums, Archives and Tourism development related fields.

Politicians need historical knowledge in implementing administrative reforms. There are plenty of job opportunities at Museums, Archives and Tourism development related fields.

The book of Arnold Toynbee is ‘A Study of History’.

Humanism was a restoration of true civilsation after the Dark Age that had set in after the fall of the Roman Empire. Humanism stressed on the individual skills. It also revived the Greek literature.

Arnold Toynbee was a British historian and a Professor of history at the London University.

According to Nehru “History is a story of man from Barbarism to civilization”.

According to Nehru “History is a story of man from Barbarism to civilization. 

Bipedalism means walking or running on two feet.

Cross is the emblem of Christianity.

Periceles period is popularly called as the “Golden age” of Athens. 

Traditional economic system of the colonies : 

The European nations vied with each other in establishing colonies. This competition led to conflicts among them and caused mutual distrust and enmity. This further drove the nations to the signing of military alliances. The Triple Alliance and Triple Entente were examples of such military alliances.

Germany, Austria Hungary and Italy were members of triple alliance.Triple entente consisted of England, France and Russia. The formation of such alliances created a war atmosphere in Europe. They started manufacturing and buying lethal weapons.

Aggressive Nationalism : 

The European nations used aggressive nationalism to invade other countries. Aggressive nationalists considered their own nations as the supreme and justified whatever be the actions of their nations. Various movements in europe were an offshoot of Aggressive nationalism.

Assassination of Francis Ferdinand : 

When Austria laid its claim over the Balkan region with the support of Germany, Serbia claimed this region with the support of Russia. During this time a Serbian youth Gaverilo Prinsep assassinated Francis Ferdinand the heir to the throne of Austria at the Bosnian capital Sarajevo in June 1914.

Austria held Serbia responsible for it and declared war on serbiaon 28 July 1914. Almost all nations of the world directly or indirectly were involved in it. Therefore this war is known as the First world war.

The pyramid of Giza is the biggest pyramid in the world.

• Over 10 million people died. 
• Freedom movements in Asia and Africa intensified. 
• In a bid to preserve and maintain world peace, the United Nations Organization was formed. 
• Economic system of European countries was destroyed. 
• European dominance in world diminished. 
• USA and Soviet Union emerged as global powers. 
• Beginning of cold war and arms race.

The neigh bouring areas of Shivaji’s Kingdom which were not under the direct rule of Shivaji were to give 1/4 of their land revenue collection to him. This was known as ‘Chauth’.

Results of Renaissance: 

1. Renaissance brought about a transition from blind faith to reason and science. 

2. Renaissance created a new outlook on life. It stimulated the spirit of enquiry, criticism and experimentation. 

3. Renaissance Scholars and Writers boldly and openly expressed their new ideas, which went against the teachings of the Church. The secular outlook and individualism began to spread. 

4. By the Renaissance influence, medieval superstitions were shattered and men became bold and adventurous, thus becoming interested in geographical explorations. 

5. The ideas of individualism gained due importance during Renaissance. New learning emphasis was laid upon the freedom and dignity of man as an individual, allowing him to develop his talents and faculties. 

6. Renaissance gave a marked stimulus to the growth of vernacular literature. 

7. One other important feature of Renaissance was the growth of Humanism.

8. The new spirit of Renaissance was responsible for the remarkable scientific progress. 

9. Renaissance brought about great changes in life of the people in different fields like political, intellectual, economic and religious fields. 

10. People also started questioning some of the doctrines of Christianity and the corrupt practices. This new outlook resulted in a religious revolution in the Catholic Church that is known as the Reformation. 

11. Monarchy was strengthened due to the dawn of Renaissance. It led to the rise of the Spirit of National Consciousness in several countries.

Herodotus the Greek Historian is regarded as the father of History.

a. Administration: Vijayanagara Rulers provided internal peace to the Empire and protection from external threats. They introduced a strong central Government along with decentralization of power.

1. Central Administration: Monarchy was the existing system. The King was the supreme authority of the state. He enjoyed enormous powers but he always worked for the welfare of the people. The King was the highest court of appeal. Law was based on customs and traditions punishments were very severe like death sentences, trampling to death, etc.,

Kingship was hereditary. The King was assited by a ‘Council of Ministers’ headed by the Prime Minister called ‘Maha Pradhani’. The council of ministers played an important role in the administration. They supervised over many departments and advised the King in taking proper decisions.

Important officers were Upa Pradhani (Deputy P.M), Danda Nayaka, Mahasaman tadipati (Minister of Feudatories), Raya Bhandari (Treasurer), Sabhanaiyaka (Leader of the council), Mahasand ivigrahi (Foreign Affairs). Yuvaraja was associated with the administration.

2. Provincial Administration: 

There were two types of provinces in the Vijayanagara Empire. They were :

a. Provinces which were under the direct rule by the King’s representatives.

b. The provincial rule by the feudatories (Nayakas), which was called the Nayankara system. The Nayankara system gave more autonomy to the feudatories.’ The King had the power to transfer or remove the provincial officers. Nayakas were to pay annual tributes to the King and had to maintain military troops for wars. These Nayakas maintained Military and Civil representatives in the court of the King. Rajya was further divided into Vishaya and Nadu.

3. Village administration: The village was the last unit of the administration. Village had its own assemblies (Gramapanchyat). The social, administrative and judicial matters in the village were taken care of by the local assemblies. The head of the village administration was ‘Gouda’. Collection of revenue was his main duty and accounts were looked after by the Karanika. Talawara discharged the duties of a policeman.

4. Revenue System: Land Revenue was the main source of income for the state. It was nearly 1/6 of the gross produce. Property tax, commercial tax, tax on industries, war booty, judicial fines, and taxs of all professions including prostitution, customs and toll were the other sources of income. Taxes were collected either in cash or in kind.

5. Military Administration: Vijayanagara Empire had a strong military to safeguard the vast area from its enemies. The army administration was looked after by the ‘Dandanayaka’. The army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephants, and artillery. Forts played an important role in the defensive warfare.

b. Social conditions :

1. Caste System: The Vijayanagara society was divided into four castes namely Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras. Brahmans had a high position in the society’. Blacksmiths, goldsmiths, weavers, farmers, and traders played very important role in the social activities. Social harmony existed in the Empire.

2. Position of Woman: Women enjoyed a respectable position in the society. They participated in activities like dancing and singing. Few women received education, but they were confined to household work. Social evils like dowry, sati, devadasi, prostitution, child marriage, and polygamy existed in that society.

3. Social Harmony: Musi is settled in the Empire and they were given security by the Kings. Mosques were built for prayers and Quran was placed in a respectable place. The members of the Royal family worshipped Hindu, Buddha, and Jain deities and followed the common tenets of these religions. Hence it is clear that social harmony prevailed in the Vijayanagara Empire. Dasara, Holi, and Deepavali were the national festivals. People observed these festivals with great pomp and splendour.

c. Economic Condition:

1. Agriculture: Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Land revenue was fixed on the basis of the quality of soil. Land was divided into wet, dry and horticultural land. Rice, wheat, cotton, pulses, spices, are canuts, ginger, fruits, turmeric, etc., were the main products of agriculture. 

2. Irrigation: They gave much attention for irrigation. Large number of wells, tanks, lakes, canals, and dams were constructed. A huge tank was constructed by Krishnadevaraya near Nagalapura. A Dam and a Raya canal were also built by him at Korrangal.

3. Trade and commerce: Internal and external trade flourished under the Vijayanagara Rulers. Vijrakurur mines in Andhra Pradesh supplied the most valuable diamounds. Main exports of the time were cloth, rice, suger, spices, iron, etc., The important imports were elephants, horses, pearls, coral, mercury, silks, etc., Udayagiri, Tanjore, Madurai, Calicut, Mangalore, Barakur and Bhatkal were the main centers of trade.

There were about two hundred ports in the eastern and western coasts. The standard currency was the gold (Varaha) pon. Visa, Kasu and Pagods were the other coins.

d. Religion: Vijayanagara Rulers encouraged and ensured religious tolerance among the Hindus, Jains, and Muslims. The Sangama Rulers encouraged Shaivism and the later Rulers gave importance to Vaishnavism. Devaraya – II built a Jain basadi in the Empire during his reign. Shravanabelgola inscription of Bukka – I refers to the peace treaty between the Srivaishnavas and Jains.

The Vachana Movement was popular during this time. The Varkari Movement of Lord Vittala of Pandrapura and the Dasakuta tradition were encouraged. Hampi, Sringeri, Shravanabelagola, Shrishaila, Srikalahashti, Ahobilam, Madurai, Srirangam were the important religious centres. Temples and Mathas were the notable religious institutions. The temples were places of worship and Mathas stood for the spread of religious principles. They encouraged Education and Culture.

e. Education and Literature: Mathas, Agraharas, and Temples played an important role in imparting education. ‘Dhulakshara’ was a system of education, which is referred to in ‘Mohanatarangini’ of Kanakadasa. It was a system of learning to write on sand. Primary education was called ‘Balabodha’. Hampi, Kodimatha, Sringeri, Yediyur, Kunigal, etc., were notable centers of education of that time.

f. Literature: The Vijayaria’gara Rulers encouraged Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu literature. Harihara, Bukkaraya, Devaraya – II and Krishnadevaraya extended liberal patronage to scholars and poets. Some important literary works of the period are :

g. Sanskrit Works: Vidyaranya was a prolific writer in Sanskrit, he wrote more than 60 works. Madhava – Sayana wrote Parasara Madhaviya, Gangadevi, Queen of Veerakampan wrote Maduravijayam (Veerakamparaya Charitam), Tirumalamba wrote Varadambikaprinayam. Guru Vidyaranya wrote Raja Kalanirnaya. Krishanadevaraya wrote Madalasacharite, Rasamanjari, Jambavati Kalyanam, Usha Parinayam, etc.,

h. Kannada Works: Tontada Siddaling- eshwara wrote Vachanas, Kumaravyasa – Karnataka Kathamanjari (Gadugina Bharata), Nanjunda Kavi – Kumara Ramanakathe, Siddalinga Yathi wrote Shunyasampadane, Ratnakarvarni – Bharatesha Vaibhava, Bhimakavi – Basavapurana, Chamarasa – Prabhulingaleele. Kanakadasa – Mohana Tarangini, Nala Charita, Haribhakti Sara, etc., Purandaradasa – Keertans, Virupakshapandita – Channabasapurana Narahari – Torave Ramayana, Nijaguna Shivayogi – Viveka Chintamani.

i. Telugu : Krishnadevaraya was a great scholar in Telugu. He wrote Amukta Malyada in Telugu. He patronized eight great Telugu poets in his court who were called ‘Ashtadiggajas’. Allasani Peddanna revered as the father of Telugu was conferred with the title of ‘Andhrakavi Pitamaha’.

Srinatha wrote Kashikhanda Nachaha, Somanatha wrote Harivamsha, Allasani Peddanna wrote Manucharitamu, Vemana wrote poems. Krishnadevaraya is often described as. ‘Andhra Bhoja’.

Harisena composed the Allahabad Pillar inscription.

• The first world war ended in 1918. It produced far reaching impacts around the world. 
• Over 10 million people lost their lives or were injured in the war. 
• Economic dominance of Europe diminished. 
• Poverty, unemployment and inflation increased.
• Liberation movements in Asia and Africa strengthened agriculture, industry and com munication systems were destroyed.
• In a bid to bring about peace in the world, the league of nations was formed.

In 1919 a peace conference was convened at paris to discuss post war situation under the leadership of winning allies, Britain and fiance. They signed different treaties with defeated nations. The Versailles Treaty signed with Germany in 1919 was the most important one. According to this treaty, German colonies were divided among victorious powers and Germany was forced to pay a huge amount as war indemnity. The allies occupied the rich mines of Germany.

Europe was the focal point of first world war and it had to bear the major brunt. Hence economically and politically, the European nations suffered serious setbacks. Ruling dynasties like Romanov in Russia , Hohenzollern in Germany and Hapsburg in Austria Hungary lost power.

The United states of America was not affected by war. Hence European countries was not affected by war. Hence european nations managed to get loans from the USA. Consequently American dollar overtook british pound on the basis of foreign exchange holding.

Edward Leopold Ottovon Bismarck was born in 1815 in an aristocratic Prussian family. He was well educated and when he was appointed as the Prussian Ambassador to Russia and later to France, he gained first-hand knowledge and experience about the European politics.

He was appointed as Chancellor of Prussia in 1862 by King William I. He made up his mind to unify Germany under the monarchy of Prussia as he believed that Prussia alone had the ability to lead the German States. He also knew that Austria was to be defeated to achieve this goal. So-he began to re-organize the Purssian military with the help of General Roon and General Moltke. Very soon, the Prussian army was among the best in Europe.

German provinces ofScheleswig and Holstein were declared to be part of Denmark by Christian IX of Denmark. In 1864, Bismarck made an alliance with Austria, attacked and defeated Denmark and captured these provinces back. Prussia and Austria split the administration of these two. Later, Prussia proposed a National Constitution and a National Diet for the German fjtates for which some of the States were reluctant to be part.

The Prussian troop movements near the Austrian borders arranged by Bismarck, made Austria declare war on Prussia and, appear as the aggressor. The hitherto reluctant States joined Prussia and the well prepared Prussian army with the support of Italy and the States won over Austria and in 1866 annexed Scheleswig and Holstein. The formation of the North German Confederation resulted in a partial Unification of Germany.

Bismarck wanted a war with France, the remaining big power in Europe to complete the German Unification. He diplomatically managed the situation in such a way that Napoleon III of France declared war on Prussia. France was alone and the South German States also joined hands with Prussia and the French forces were defeated at different fronts and even Paris was captured. The Prussian King William was crowned as the Emperor of United Germany with the title ‘Kaiser’. The unification of Germany was complete and Bismarck rightfully was hailed as the‘Architect of German Unification’. 

Achievements of NAM are manifold. Along with the United Nations Organization, NAM is trying to solve international problems peacefully. It has its role in the achievements of U.N.O. 

The major Achievements of Non-Aligned Movement are as follows.

• It has helped to decrease the intensity of Cold War. 
• Helped U.N.O. in resolving the issues pertaining to Korea, Vietnam, Cuba and Kuwait. 
• Worked hard to end Apartheid in South Africa. 
• Inspired treaties to reduce Atomic weapons. 
• Worked to resist the dominance of power blocs. 
• Popularized democratic principles. 
• It is working hard to establish international peace. 
• It is trying to find solutions to the problems faced by member nations. 
• It is fighting for the self reliance of member countries.

1. Discovery of sea route to India 

2. Origin of Earth 

3. Roman republic established 

4. The Russian Revolution

5. Treaty of Versailles

a. Pulikeshi – II (609-642 C.E.): He was the most outstanding personality among the Chalukyas of Badami. He was a benevolent monarch and people enjoyed plenty and prosperity under him. Pulikeshi – II was the son of Keertivarma -1. He was still a boy when Keertivarma died. Hence, Mangalesha (Brother of Keertivarma) took over the charge of administration.

Mangalesha planned to pass on the throne to his son instead of Pulikeshi – II, the rightful heir. This led to a civil war between the two. Finally, Mangalesha was defeated and he died in the battle. Pulikeshi came to the throne in 609 C.E. Hieun Tsang’s Si-Yu-Ki, Bana’s – Harshacharite, Aihole inscription, etc, give information about Pulikeshi – II.

This civil war was an unfortunate incident but became inevitable for Pulikeshi, and the throne inherited by him was not a bed of roses. This indicates that the civil war had caused a confused situation in the Kingdom. Many chiefs wanted to take advantage of the situation and become independent. Hence they rebelled against Pulikeshi – II.

b. Conquests of Pulikeshi – II: 

1. Attack on the Rashtrakuta chiefs: The Rashtrakutas were following a policy of aggression and expansion during the time of Pulikeshi. The Rashtrakuta chiefs Appayika and Govinda rebelled against Badami rule. Pulikeshi crushed them in a battle on the banks of river Bhima. Appayika. ran away from the battle field, while Govinda surrendered to Pulikeshi.

2. Subjugation of the Kadambas, Mauryas, Alupasand Gangas: After strengthening his power and resources, Pulikeshi – II adopted a policy of conquest. He took an expedition against the Rulers of places surrounding Badami. He subjugated the Kadambas of Banavasi, Mauryas of Konkan, Alupas of south Canara and Gangas of Talakadu.

3. Attack on Lata, Malwa, and Gurjaras: Pulikeshi – II set his eyes towards the North – west, on Lata, Malwa, and Gurjaras. As a result, these Rulers were also defeated and he extended his territories up to Malwa. He appointed his brother, Jayasiniha as the Governor of Gujarath.

4. War with Harshavardhana: The most significant and memorable of his military career was his victory over Harshavardhana of Kanauj. A powerful Kingdom had been established by Harsha who had conquered most of north India, and was making an attempt to extend his reign in the south also. Pulikeshi took an expedition towards north, and Harsha came into conflict with Pulikeshi – II.

But Pulikeshi who had camped on the banks of the river Narmada, did not allow Harsha to cross the river. Harshavardhana was defeated by Pulikeshi in the battle of Narmada in 634 C.E. Narmada became the common frontier of the two Kingdoms. After the battle, Pulikeshi assumed the title of ‘Parameshwara and Dakshinapathesh wara. Hieun Tsang’s record and the Aihole inscriptions give testimony to this victory of Pulikeshi – II.

5. Expedition towards East: After the Northern campaign, Pulikeshi turned his eyes towards east and conquered Kosala and Kalinga regions and the important fort of Pistapura (Godavari). He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the Governor of these provinces. Kubja Vishnuvardhana became the founder of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty.

6. Expedition in South: The Pallava ruler Mahendravarma -1 had become powerful in the south. Pulikeshi invaded the Pallava Kingdom and defeated Mahendravarma – I in the battle of Pallalur. Then he annexed other Pallava territories also and seized Kanchi in 632 C.E.

After these successful military campaigns, Pulikeshi returned to his capital and reigned in peace for quite some time. His name and fame began to spread far and wide. He performed the ‘Ashwamedha Sacrifice’ to commemorate his victory and assumed titles like ‘Sathyashraya, Vikrama, Parameshwara, Dakshinapatheshwara, Pruthvi Vallabha, Maharajadhiraja, etc.,

7. Extent of his Kingdom: The Kingdom of Pulikeshi – II extended from the Kosala and Kalinga (Bay of Bengal) in the east, to Konkana in the west, the river Narmada in the north and up to river Cauveri in the south.

Due to the campaigns of Pulikeshi, his name and fame began to spread far and wide. He maintained cultural and commercial contacts with Persia and exchanged Ambassadors with the Persian Emperor Khusru – II (Ajantha cave paintings depict this scene). The Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited the court of Pulikeshi – II in 641 C.E.

He has given us a factual and reliable description about the King and his Empire. In his last days, Pulikeshi – II had to face the attack of the mighty Pallava forces under Narasimha- varman -1. Pulikeshi was defeated in the battle, and Narasimhavarman seized the Chalukyan capital in 642 C.E. In memory of this victory, Narasimhavarman assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.

Paithana or Pratishthana.

After the First World War the Allied Powers met at Paris for the first time to arrange the terms of Peace. In the Paris Peace Conference the victorious Allies dictated the peace treaties.

The main participants in the conference were Woodrow Wilson, the President of America, Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of England, Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France and Orlando, the Prime Minister of Italy. Five separate treaties were signed by the Allied countries with Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria. Of them, the most important was the Treaty of Versailles signed between the Allies and Germany on 28^th June, 1919. The date was the fifth anniversary of the murder of Archduke, Francis Ferdinand of Austria. The Allied Powers strongly held Germany responsible for the destruction and suffering caused by the war. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty. It was humiliated and hurt by this Treaty.

Provisions of the Treaty: 

1. Alsace and Loraine provinces of Germany were given back to France. France also acquired the Saar coal basin of Germany for a period of 15 years as a compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in the north of France.

2. Schleswig and Holstein were given to Denmark by Germany. Danzig was snatched away from Germany and declared a free port. 

3. Rhineland area was completely demilitarized. All existing forts in the area were demolished and instructions were given not to build any more forts. 

4. The independence of Poland, Belgium and Czechoslovakia was recognized by Germany. 

5. Germany gave up all its colonies to the Allies. These were divided between England, France, Japan and others. Germany was made responsible for the losses of First World War. So, Germany was made to pay a huge war indemnity of 6,600 million Pounds. 

6. Germany was disarmed. The sizes of its army and navy were reduced. German army „ was cut down to 1,00,000 soldiers. The import and export of weapons were prohibited. It also imposed restriction on the manufacture of machine guns and rifles. German warships were converted into commercial ships. Germany was not allowed to maintain Tanks, Submarines and Military aircrafts.

1. The origin of Earth 

2. Discovered Sea route of India 

3. Battle of Waterloo 

4. NAZI party 

5. Bandung Conferences

(a) Rome: It is the capital of Italy. It was also the capital of the Roman Empire. Vatican City in Rome is the centre of Pope, who is the religious head of the Catholics. According to a Roman legend, Rome was founded by the twins Romulus and Remus in 8th century B.C.E. According to another version the name is derived from the Greek word Rome which means ‘strength’.

(b) Paris: It is the capital of France. The Bourbon family ruled over France from here, till the French Revolution of 1789. In modern times, many historical treaties have been signed here. The name Paris is derived from that of its earliest inhabitants, known as the ‘Parissi’ meaning ‘The working People’ or ‘The Craftsmen’. Paris is also known as ‘The City of Light’, due to its fame as a centre of education and ‘Paradise of Traveller’s. The famous Eiffel Tower is here.

(c) Nagasaki: It is in Japan. Nagasaki means ‘Long Cape’. On 9^th August 1945, US Air force dropped the second Atomic bomb called ‘Fat Man’ on Nagasaki. As a result of this, more than 70,000 people died. Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in 16th Century.

(d) Babylonia: It is in present Iraq. It was the capital of Mesopotamian Civilization. The famous law-giver Hammurabi ruled from here. Nebuchadnezzar built the ‘Hanging Gardens’. which was one of the Wonders of the Ancient World. 

(e) Alexandria: It is in northern Egypt. It was founded by Alexander the Great. It was intended to be the link between Greece and the rich Nile Valley. An Egyptian City, Rhakotis already existed on the shores and was later given the name Alexandria. In Egyptian, it means “That which is built up”. In the ancient times it had a Light house which was one of the Wonders of the World.

(f) Cape of Good Hope: It is at the southern tip of South Africa. Bartholomew Diaz called it ‘Cape of Storms’. Later, Vasco-daGama renamed it as ‘Cape of Good Hope’ under the direction of King John of Portugal, since it gave hope for further explorations to reach India. 

(g) Geneva: It is in Switzerland. It was one of the centres of Protestant movement. International organizations like ILO, WHO, WTO and GATT are located here. 

(h) Moscow: It is the capital city of Russia, located on the banks of river Moskva and named after the river. It was one of the centres of Russian Revolution of 1917 and was made the capital of USSR.

Introduction: World War I was one of the greatest, largest and most destructive events in the history of the modern world. It was the first time when such a large number of countries from Europe and other parts of the world were involved in conflict and affected either directly or indirectly. It destroyed more human lives and material than ever before. It broke out in 1914 and came to an end in 1918. Nearly 30 countries participated in this conflict between highly organised and well armed countries with modem weaponry.

Causes of world war: 

1. Aggressive Nationalism: Nationalistic aspirations have always led to political rivalries. The narrow nationalism which always meant love of their own people, their own nation and culture became a predominant feature. As a result, there began to develop among the Europeans a kind of negligence towards other countries e.g., William-II the King of Germany declared that “Germany should either rule the world or perish”. Even England was not free from this self- exaltation. This competitive patriotism forced them to jump into military and naval competitions.

2. Economic and Military imperialism: The European powers competed with each other for commercial and colonial expansion in the non-European world. The launching of industrial schemes on a large scale needed raw material and also a ready market for their finished goods. This led to colonial competition among the European countries, which was carried on to other fields as well. Commercial competition led to mutual jealousy and tension.

3. Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente: Bismarck achieved the unification of Germany in 1871 A.D. He fought many wars with the neighbouring countries. He sought to give the Empire stability and security and to achieve that end, formed a Triple Alliance with Austria and Italy. In 1907 A.D, alarmed by the formation of this Triple Alliance, Russia, France and England came together and formed an alliance called the Triple Entente. Thus Europe came to be divided into two hostile blocks.

4. The Arms Race: Triple Alliance and Triple Entente led to a keen competition of manufacturing war materials. Germany had made tremendous progress in the military to produce tanks, machine guns, and submarines etc., Greater number of soldiers Were recruited and equipped with modern weapons. Kaiser William-II of Germany glorified war. He wished to make Germany a world power. His belief that “The German race alone should rule the world” greatly alarmed England. 

5. England also began to invest more on Navy and greater effort was undertaken to preserve the title “Queen of Seas” and that “Sun never sets on British Empire”. The militaristic attitude of Germany roused the fear in France which began to strengthen her military. Many European nations introduced compulsory military training. Further, the arms race created fear, suspicion tension and distrust between each other. All the nations of Europe were preparing for war.

6. Attitude of France: France had never forgotten her defeat at the hands of Bismarck in the Franco-Prussian war in 1871. After the war, she had also ceded the Alsace and Lorraine provinces to Germany. France was eagerly waiting for an opportunity to take revenge against Germany besides getting back those provinces.

7. Immediate cause: The Austrian Crown Prince, Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in the streets of Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia on 28th June 1914. So Austria felt that the Serbian Government was responsible for that and sent an ultimatum to Serbia demanding to handover the perpetrators within 48 hours. Serbia rejected the ultimatum. Austria backed by Germany, declared war on Serbia on 28th July 1914. Russia coming to the help of Serbia, entered the fray and other countries followed suit.

Results of the First World War: 

1. Loss of life: The horrors and miseries of the war were plentiful. The total loss of life of all nations put together was some 10 million killed in action, more than lcrore people wounded and millions permanently disabled. As they were incapable of self support, they remained a burden on their family and their nations.

2. Economic dislocation: A large number of people lost their property (186 billion dollars), millions of civilians died of diseases and starvation. The national loan of the participants in the war was enormous. This financial disorder and widespread suffering led to violent social and political changes.

3. The First World War ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The prominent delegates who represented the different nations in the Peace Conference were Woodrow Wilson, the President of U.S.A., Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of England, Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France and Orlando, the Prime Minister of Italy. 

4. The victors sought to brand Germany as responsible for the war and all the consequences of the war. It had to give up a lot of its territories and colonies. It was imposed a huge war indemnity and its military strength was reduced. 

5. The war created a demand for an international organization to protect world peace. As a result, the League of Nations came into existence on 1st of January 1929.

6. France reoccupied Alsace and Lorraine, the two provisions from Germany. Besides, France gained the Saar coal basin. 

7. The great Empires of Austria, Hungary, Russia, Germany and Ottoman Turkey came to an end. These were replaced by republics. Poland, Belgium and Czechoslovakia became independent.

8. The great depression of 1929 was a result of First World War.

Copper was the first metal used by man in North India.