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Binge eating disorder also called obesity. While we consume huge/large amount of food or when we overeat, we generally feel out of the control and powerless. This disorder generally happend in early childhood or late adolescence. 

Symptoms:

• No satisfaction, even when you eat too much. 

• Having tension and stress which is only removed by eating. 

• Unable to control eating habits and weight.

“Binge eating disorder” is a serious eating disorder in which a person (usually overweight or obese) frequently craves and consume large amounts of food and lacks resistance and control over eating.

Storage of milk : 

Milk comes under the category of perishable foods. Perishable foods are those food items requiring refrigeration and special handling. 

For storage of milk to maintain its quality we should do the following things : 

• Select milk according to quality needed, i.e., Tonned Milk and Full Cream Milk. 

• Check colour and taste of milk. Generally milk has slightly sweet taste, stale milk has sour taste and an unpleasant smell. 

• Boil milk should be kept in a cool place. If there is no refrigerator, boil milk after every 5-6 hours to keep it free from germs. 

• Never mix old milk with fresh milk. 

• Keep away from strong smelling foods, e.g., onions, guava etc. as it easily absorbs the smell.

Use of salt in food preservations: Salt is perhaps most well known as a food preservative and flavouring agent. It has been used to preserve food for many thousands of years and is the most common seasoning. The reason why salt is such an effective preservative is that it draws moisture out of food. Dry foods are less likely to spoil as moisture is a key requirement for organisms that want to spoil the food. But salt also plays other, lesser-known roles in the food we eat as an essential nutrient, providing flavour and texture, and enhancing colour. For these reasons, salt is used in food production, which is why the sodium content of processed foods is so high. 

Salt has been used as a preservative for ages, and works to preserve food in two ways : 

• Salt dries food: Salt draws water out of food and dehydrates it. All living things require water and cannot grow in the absence of water, including the bacteria which can cause food poisoning. Salt is used to preserve beef jerky by keeping it dry, and it prevents butter from spoiling by drawing water out, leaving just the fat. 

• Salt kills microbes: In very high salt solutions, many microbes will rupture due to the difference in pressure between the outside and inside of the organism. High salt can also be toxic to internal processes of microbes, affecting DNA and enzymes. Solutions high in sugar also have the same effects on microbes, which is why it is used as a preservative of foods such as jams and jellies.

Sweat glands: These are a type of exocrine glands that produce and secrete substances. These are found throughout the skin. 

In human body, Eccrine and Apocrine glands are two types of glands. Eccrine sweat glands are distributed all over the human body. While Apocrine sweat glands are mostly limited to the axilla (armpits) and perianal areas in humans.

1. A wise consumer should know what to buy, when to buy, where to buy, how to buy, how much to buy. 

2. Good planning helps to avoid buying unnecessary items. 

3. Decide the quantity of the item. It helps to avoid the wastage. 

4. Decide what you need. 

5. Evaluate the products by looking their price, brand, quality.

Need for consumer education: Consumer education means to educate the consumers as to what, how much, where, when and how to buy and how to use what they have bought. It develops critical awareness and living skills which are oriented towards building a better future for all. Consumer education assists the buyer in wise selection of goods to meet family requirements. 

As we know, today’s market is a complex system because it is flooded with a variety of products that may confuse the buyer as to what they should buy. As they have limited knowledge, everyone can confuse them easily. Therefore, there is a need for consumer education. 

An educate consumer can : 

1. develop the ability to decide and choose things intelligently. 

2. always demand safe, reliable and good quality products at a reasonable price. 

3. take suitable action when faced with a problem. At times even an experienced consumer find it difficult to select the best option. The right selection provides immense satisfaction. However, while selecting if certain considerations are kept in mind, one can be assured the purchase of right kind of commodity. The consumer education programme should be aimed at developing an awareness about consumer rights and responsibilities consumer choice and product evaluation.

Consumer aids: 

1. Definition – Consumer aids are those tools that guide the consumers in selecting and buying a product. 

The following consumer aids help in wise buying— 

2. Standardization marks – mark given to a product which meets certain standards with respect to the quality of the product, material used, method of manufacture, labelling, packaging, sale and performance. 

3. Advertisements- inform the consumers about the availability, use and special features of a product. 

4. Packaging is the container or wrapper in which a product is kept for marketing and it protects the product from damage and adulteration. 

5. Labels attached to the product give information about the product manufacturers name, ingredients, date of manufacture, expiry, weight, MRP, directions for use etc.

Operation Blue Star was an Indian military operation, which occurred in June, 1984. It was ordered by the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, to flush out the militant members of the Khalistan who were hidden inside the holy Golden Temple in Amritsar.

Panchsheel Pact (1954) indicates the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence. These were first formally enunciated in the Agreement on Trade and Intercourse between the Tibet region of China and India.

The Kashmir conflict was the disputed issue that led to the outbreak of the first Indo-Pak War (1948-49).

India, as a country has been witnessing a steady decline in the joint family structure, not just in the cities, but also in rural areas. 

The shift has occurred due to the following reasons: 

Industrialization and Urbanization : 

The impact of industrialization and urbanization is felt everywhere. The movement of the people towards urban areas and industrial zones for better education and job opportunities has resulted in the disintegration of family from joint to nuclear. It has led to the preference for families that are smaller in size.

Westernisation : Migration of the young adults to urban centers and their adaptation of modern western – views in family life and structures have also caused a disintegration of the traditional joint family structures. The spirit of independence asserted by these young adults in terms of choice of career and spouse from other communities has added to the reasons for family disintegration. 

Level of education : There is a positive correlation between the level of education and the incidence of people’s mobility to urban centers and consequently a shift from joint family to nuclear family. Thus, education has greatly affected joint family ties. 

Spirit of individualism : It is one of the most important causes which has destroyed the joint family life. The individuals think of themselves rather than for the welfare of the members of whole family. It has also affected the authority structure of the family. 

Economic independence of women : Women today are becoming more independent financially .The education and employment opportunities are available for women as well as men. The economic independence has increased their status, but has also affected their attitude towards authority, structure and consequently their family life.

Some Basic Features of Apartheid : 

Basic premise : The races must be separated and allowed to develop their own way. In reality it was a system to keep white South Africans in control of the country. Put into effect when the Afrikaners gained control of the Government (Afrikaners outnumbered other whites). 

For years the system was supported theologically by a perversion of the Calvinist doctrine of predestination held in the South African Dutch Reformed Church. 

The population was classified into four racial groups and had to carry internal passports which stated to which group the person belonged: 

• European- whites – Afrikaners and British. 

• Asians – from India – Brought over by the British to build the railroads and became a class of small shop owners. 

• Coloured- People of mixed racial background – the largest number being in the Cape Town area. 

• Bantu – the black residents of South Africa from numerous tribes. 

Intermarriage was not allowed. 

Only the white South Africans were considered complete citizens – The Bantu were considered foreigners living in South Africa. 

Residence and jobs were determined by racial category – separate jobs, water fountains, benches in the park, residences, hospitals, schools – separate, but no equality was mentioned. 

Criticism of the government was considered a Communist activity and was punishable by imprisonment. 

Under the 90-day detention act, a person could be held in jail without being charged with a crime for 90 days (could be extended for a second 90 days). 

International sanctions and embargoes helped in bringing an end to the system. Today all people are considered equal citizens of South Africa and Nelson Mandela (imprisoned for 27 yrs.) led the country, as president, into an era of real freedom and equality for all. 

Opposition to apartheid within South Africa: Internal resistance to the apartheid system in South Africa came from several sectors of society and saw the creation of organisations dedicated variously to peaceful protests, passive resistance and armed insurrection. 

In 1949, the youth wing of the African National Congress (ANC) took control of the organisation and started advocating for a radical black nationalist programme that combined the tenants of Africanism with those of Marxism. The new young leaders proposed that white authority could only be overthrown through mass campaigns. In 1950 that philosophy saw the launch of the Programme of Action, a series of strikes, boycotts and civil disobedience actions that led to occasionally violent clashes with the authorities. 

In 1959, a group of disenchanted ANC members formed the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC), which organised a demonstration against pass books on 21 March 1960. One of those protests was held in the township of Sharpeville, where 69 people were killed in the Sharpeville uprising. 

The majority of whites supported apartheid. However, there were some who opposed apartheid, such as Helen Suzman, Colin Eglin and Harry Schwarz. 

In the wake of the Sharpeville incident the government declared a state of emergency. More than 18,000 people were arrested, including leaders of the ANC and PAC. As a result both the organisations were banned. The resistance went underground, with some leaders in exile abroad and others engaged in campaigns of domestic sabotage and terrorism. 

In the 1970s, the Black Consciousness Movement was created by tertiary students influenced by the American Black Power movement. BC endorsed black pride and African customs and did much to alter the feelings of inadequacy instilled among black people by the apartheid system. The leader of the movement, Steve Biko, was taken into custody on 18 August 1978 and died in detention. 

In 1976, secondary students in Soweto protested against forced tution in Afrikaans. On June 16, it was meant to be a peaceful protest, 23 people were killed. In the following years several student organisations were formed with the goal of protesting against apartheid, and these organisations were central to urban school boycotts in 1980 and 1983 as well as rural boycotts in 1985 and 1986. 

In parallel to student protests, labour unions started protest action in 1973 and 1974. After 1976 unions and workers are considered to have played an important role in the struggle against apartheid, filling the gap left by the banning of political parties. In 1979, black trade unions were legalized and could engage in collective bargaining, although strikes were still illegal. 

At roughly the same time churches and church groups also emerged as pivotal points of resistance. Church leaders were not immune to prosecution, and certain faith-based organisations were banned, but the clergy generally had more freedom to criticise the Government than militant groups did. 

Among the white population, some 20 percent of which did not support apartheid, resistance was largely centred in the South African Communist Party and women’s organisation the Black Sash. Women were also notable in their involvement in trade union organisations and banned political parties.

(a) NOW: National Organisation for Women 

(b) ERA : Equal Rights Amendment

The necessity is felt to increase the number of permanent members in Security Council to restore harmony and ensure wider cooperation and goodwill with third World Nations.

In the elections under the Government of India Act, 1935, the mandate of the people came in favour of the Congress. The Congress swept the polls ,so far as general Hindu seats were concerned. Out of the 38 seats reserved for the labour, the Congress contested 20 seats and won 18 seats. Of the 482 seats reserved as Muslim seats, the Congress contested 58 seats and won only 26 seats. For commerce and industry, 56 seats were reserved. The Congress won only 3 seats. In five provinces, Congress had a clear majority. 

In Bengal, NWFP, Assam and Bombay, the Congress emerged as the single largest party. Thus, the Congress formed ministries in 7 provinces out of 11 provinces. Coalition ministries were also formed in 2 other provinces. Only Bengal and Punjab had non-Congress ministries. On the other hand, the performance of Muslim League was not better. The Muslim League could not get a single seat in NWFP. In Punjab, the Muslim League got only 2 seats out of the 84 reserved seats.

The Americans canceled a promised grant of 46 million dollars for building the Aswan Dam. Nasser retaliated by nationalizing the Suez Canal intending to use the income from it to finance the Dam.

The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at Bombay in December 1885.

Germany, Italy and Japan were the three power signatories of the ‘AntiComintern Pact.

The full form of UNICEF was United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund. In 1953 the General Assembly decided to change its name to United Nations Children’s Fund but it continues to be officially known as UNICEF.

The Veto Power is enjoyed by the big five nations that are USA, UK, France, Russia and China. The Veto Power includes the affirmative vote of the five permanent members of the Security Council. Any one of the ‘five permanent members’, by casting a vote against a resolution, can prevent its being accepted even if all the other members of the council are in favor. This is also known as ‘Law of Unanimity’.

One Function of General Assembly of the United Nations is to discuss any matter which falls within the scope of the UN Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any organ of the United Nations. 

Indus Waters Treaty (1960) was the name of the agreement signed by India and Pakistan relating to sharing of river waters.

Created even more jobs – money spent on manufacturing weapons, tanks, ships & aircraft. Heavy industry especially benefited. 1933-39 production of coal & chemicals doubled, oil and iron & steel trebled and iron ore extraction increased fivefold. Expansion of army created more jobs – from 100,000 in 1933 (the limit set by Versailles Treaty) to 900,000 by 1938.

Mohammed Ali and Shaukat Ali (The Ali Brothers).

To violate salt laws which forbade anyone to make salt.

The Lucknow Pact is remembered for two main reasons and they are :

(i) In 1916 at the Lucknow session Hindus and Muslims decided to

(ii) It was an important step on the road to Hindu-Muslim unity and the British were faced with joint demand for self-government.

Causes and results of the Six Day War (1967) 

1. In Iraq a new government came to power which was influenced by the ideas of the Ba’ath party (resurrection)-they believed in Arab independence and unity and were left wing in outlook, wanting social reform and better treatment for ordinary people 

2. In Syria political upheavals brought the Ba’ath party to power. 

3. It supported El Fatah, the Palestinian Liberation Movement(guerrilla force) 

4. The Syrians began to bombard Jewish settlements 

5. In Egypt Colonel Nasser was immensely popular because of his leadership of the Arab world. 

6. Nasser tried to improve the conditions in Egypt- industrialised the country, built factories, Aswan Dam project etc. 

7. Nasser thought the time to be ripe for another attack on Israel 

8. The Russians encouraged Egypt and Syria and kept up a flow of anti-Israeli propaganda. 

9. Syria, Jordan and Lebanon also massed troops along their frontiers with Israel – contingents -Iraq, Saudi Arabia and Algeria 

Results : 

1. They launched a series of devastating air strikes which destroyed most of the Egyptian air force. 

2. Israeli troops captured the Gaza Strip and the whole of Sinai from Egypt, the rest of Jerusalem and the West Bank from Jordan and the Golan Heights from Syria. 

3. The Arabs had to accept a UN ceasefire order. 

4. Reasons for spectacular Israeli success: the slow and ponderous Arab troop build-up gave plenty of warnings to them, Israeli superiority in air and inadequate Arab preparations and communications 

5. It was a great success for the Israelis. 

6. Ignored the UN order to return the captured territory. 

7. It acted as a series of buffer zones between Israeli and the Arab states. 

8. New problem- a million of Arabs found themselves under Israeli rule who were living in the refugee camps. 

9. It was a humiliation for the Arab states particularly for Nasser who realized that the Arabs needed outside help in order to free Palestine.

1. The two sides were willing to negotiate as President Sadat was convinced that the Israelis could not be destroyed by force and it was foolish to waste Egypt’s resources in fruitless wars. 

2. Israelis were suffering from severe economic problems because of huge defense expenditure and world recession. 

3. The USA was pressing the Israelis to settle their differences with some of the Arabs. President Jimmy Carter of USA acted as the Mediator and played a vital role in setting up negotiations between the two sides.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) was the foremost leader of the Indian National Congress who popularised the vision of a socialist India.

The Indian foreign policy in the yearly years after independence was ‘neutral’ because India wanted to maintain safe distance from the two power Blocs the Western and Soviet Bloc. The two camps led by the United States and the Soviet Russia wanted to extend their influence all over the world. India followed a policy not to be influenced by these two power Blocs. Thus, the Non-Alignment Movement (NAM) was largely a product of India’s efforts to organize a collective answer to ‘Bloc’ politics of the great powers and also to develop friendly relations among the countries who were trying to free themselves from colonial dominations. Another aim was to promote peace in the world. 

It was important for the countries of Africa and Asia to receive the support of the power blossom well to grow economically. A peaceful friendly environment could only facilitate this outcome. The 1950s were the Cold war era. The NATO had already been set up and military alliances were forming in Asia. In this situation India proclaimed a policy of Panchsheel.

The Anschluss was the annexation of A ia by Nazi. Germany in March, 1938. The popularity of the Austrian Nazi party grew in Austria as Hitler gained power in Germany. There was a demand by the Austrian Nazis of Austria to join Germany. In 1935 Austrian chancellor, Kurt von Schuschnigg, used the police to suppress the Nazi supporters in Austria. Following the increasing violence and demands from Hitler, Austria agreed to a union. Schuschnigg met with Hitler on February 12, 1938, at Berchtesgaden in an attempt to avoid the take over of Austria. 

Hitler presented Schuschnigg with a set of demands which included appointment of the known Austrian Nazi sympathizers, to be positioned at great power in the Austrian government. In return Hitler would reaffirm his support for Austria’s national sovereignty. Schuschnigg accepted Hitler’s terms. On 9 March, 1938, in an effort to preserve Austria’s independence, Schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite on the issue of unification for 13th March. Hitler sent an ultimatum to Schuschnigg on 11th March, demanding that he should hand over all power to the Austrian Nazis or face an invasion. Schuschnigg resigned and allowed the Nazis to take over the government. On 12th March, Germany invaded, and the enthusiasm that followed gave Hitler the cover to annex Austria outright on 13 th March.

The term Naxalites comes from Naxalbari, a small village in West Bengal, where a section of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) CPI (M) led by Charu Majumdar, Kanu Sanyal and Jangal Santhal initiated an uprising in 1967. On 18th May 1967, the Siliguri Kishan Sabha, of which Jangal was the president, declared their support for the movement initiated by Kanu Sanyal, and their readiness to adopt armed struggle to redistribute land to the landless. The following week, a sharecropper near Naxalbari village was attacked by the landlord’s men over a land dispute. On 24th May, when a police team arrived to arrest the peasant leaders, it was ambushed by a group of tribals led by Jangal Santhal, and a police inspector was killed. This event encouraged many Santhal tribals and other poor people to join the movement and to start attacking local landlords. 

1. A large number of urban elites were also attracted to the ideology, which spread through Charu Majumdar’s writings, particularly the ‘Historic Eight Documents’ which formed the basis of Naxalite ideology. 

2. Practically all Naxalite groups trace their origin to the CPI (ML). 

3. Around 1971 the Naxalites gained a strong presence among the radical sections of the student movement in Calcutta. Students left school to join the Naxalites. 

4. Majumdar, to encrourage more students into his organisation, declared that revolutionary warfare was to take place not only in the rural areas as before, but now everywhere and spontaneously. 

5. Majumdar declared an “annihilation line”, a dictum that Naxalites should assassinate individual “class enemies” (such as landlords, businessmen, university teachers, police officers, politicians of the right and left) and others.

(i) To maintain international peace. 

(ii) To abolish imperialism and colonialism and laying stress on self-determi-nation, equality and freedom. 

(iii) To maintain mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty. 

(iv) Maintaining mutual non-aggression. 

(v) Mutual non-interference in each other’s affairs. (vi) Equality and mutual benefit. 

(vii) Peaceful co-existence.

Following President Paulvon Hindenburg’s death on August 2, 1934, Adolf Hitler became the commander-in-chief of Germany. All of the officers and soldiers for Germany’s military were required to pledge their loyalty to the new Fuehrer. After he assumed power, Germany started to openly disregard most of the military restrictions, established by the Treaty of Versailles, and reinstated conscription on March 16,1935. 

The new conscription law was introduced with the name of ‘Wehrmacht.’ Therefore, March 16, 1935, is regarded as the Wehrmacht’s founding date. The official announcement of the Wehrmacht existence was announced on October 15,1935. 

Even though the scale of Germany’s standing army was required to be around 1,00,000 men, new groups of conscripts that were almost equal to that size started to receive military training every year after 1935. The authority and the organization of the Wehrmacht is viewed by many to be Nazi creations, in spite of the various political affiliations of the high command. The Wehrmacht’s insignia was based on the famous Iron Cross, which had been widely used for tank and aircraft marking during the latter part of the First World War. Nazi revanchism and expansionism led to World War II, which resulted in the destruction of Germany’s political and economic infrastructures and led to its division.

The factional rivalry between the Syndicate and Indira Gandhi came out in the open in 1969. Following President Zakir Hussain’s death, the post of the President of India fell yacant that year. Despite Indira Gandhi’s reservations, the Syndicate managed to nominate her long time rival and the then Speaker of the Lok Sabha, N. Sanjeeva Reddy, as the official Congress candidate for the coming Presidential elections. 

Indira Gandhi retaliated by encouraging the then Vice-President V.V. Giri to file his nomination as an independent candidate. After silently supporting V.V. Giri, Indira Gandhi openly called for a ‘conscience vote’ which meant that the MPs and MLAs from the Congress should be free to vote the way they wanted. 

V.V. Giri won the election and the defeat of the official Congress candidate formalized the split in the party. The Congress President expelled the Prime Minister from the Party. By November 1969, the Congress group led by the Syndicate came to be known as the Congress (Organisation) and the group led by Indira Gandhi came to be known as the – Congress (Requisitionists).

A coalition government was set up and led by the Non-Communist Benes. However, the Communists’ leader Gottwald made sure that they controlled the radio, the army and the police. Gottwald became the prime minister and set up a secret police force. Non¬Communists were arrested. In 1948, Communist workers went on strike, the Non¬Communist minister Masaryk committed suicide and Gottwald took over the government. 

1. It was the only remaining democratic state in Eastern Europe. 

2. It had a coalition government of communists and other left-wing parties in 1946. 

3. The communists had won 38 per cent of the votes and held a third of the cabinet posts. 

4. Prime Minister Gottwald was a communist, but President Benes and foreign minister, Masaryk, were non-communists. It was the only bridge between the East and the West. 

5. A crisis arose early in 1948: elections were due in May. 

6. There were signs that the communists were going to lose the elections as they had rejected the Marshall Plan. 

7. The communists decided to act before the elections and took control of the unionsandthe police in an armed coup.

In 1935, taking as an excuse of a certain boundary dispute with neighboring Italian colonies, Italy invaded Abyssinia. The League of Nations failed to stop Italian aggression. It invited its members to impose sanctions upon Italy but the league members refused. Abyssinia was practically abandoned and Italy with-drew from the League of Nations. Mussolini ignored the League, and invaded Abyssinia. The Abyssinian Emperor, Haile Selassie, went to the League to appeal for help, but it did nothing. In fact, Britain and France secretly agreed to give Abyssinia to Italy (the Hoare-Laval Pact). The invasion was a war for both sides and proved the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, as it condemned Italy’s actions and attempted to impose universal sanctions on Italy but failed.

Kamaraj and later Morarji Desai.

During the summer of 1947, the Communists began a campaign of political agitation and intrigue that gave them complete control of the Czech Government in Feb., 1948. In March, Jan Masaryk, the non-Communist foreign minister, died in suspicious circumstances. After the adoption of a new constitution (Benes resigned rather than sign it), a new legislature was elected and enacted a program for nationalizing the economy was formulated and enacted. Czechoslovakia became a Soviet- style state. 

Political and cultural liberty was curtailed, and purge trials were conducted from 1950 to 1952. Riots occurred in 1953, reflecting economic discontent. A very modest liberalization trend begun in response but was reversed in Nov. 1957, when Antonin Novotny became President. In 1960, a new constitution was enacted. Another cautious movement toward liberalization was initiated in 1963. Restrictions on the press, education, and cultural activities were eased, and local authorities received increased economic autonomy. Profit considerations were introduced into the economy. Czechoslovakia became celebrated internationally for its experimental theater work and its many fine films. But political power remained the exclusive possession of a small circle in the Communist party. 

That factor, the sluggishness of the economy (despite the reforms), and Slovak resentment over Novotny’s Czech-dominated administration, produced the startling developments of 1968. Alexander Dubcek, a Slovak, replaced Novotny as party leader in January; Ludvik Svoboda became President in March. Under Dubcek, in what is known as Prague Spring, democratization went further than in any other Communist state. Press censorship was reduced, and the restoration of a genuinely democratic political life seemed possible. Slovakia was granted political autonomy. 

Seriously alarmed at what it construed to be a threat to Soviet security and to the supremacy within the USSR of the Soviet Communist party, the USSR with some of its Warsaw Pact allies invaded Czechoslovakia in Aug., 1968. Dubcek and other leaders were taken to Moscow. Despite opposition by the populace, the USSR forced the repeal of most of the reforms. A revised constitution was promulgated. (Slovakian autonomy was retained.) In Apr., 1969, Dubcek was replaced as party leader, and in June, 1970, he was expelled from the party. 

In the early 1970s there were many efforts to stamp out dissent, including mass arrests, union purges, and religious persecution. The repressive policies and rigid Soviet-style economic policies continued throughout the 1970s despite inflation and a sluggish economy. In 1977, the appearance of a declaration of human rights called Charter 77, which was signed by 700 intellectuals and former party leaders, instigated further . repressive measures.

Italy’s Invasion of Abyssinia : 

Italy, under the leadership of Benito Mussolini, advocated an aggressive foreign policy. It showed an unflagging interest in European diplomacy. 

The sole ambition of Italy was to restrict the re-birth of German military power. As a matter of fact, Italy formed nexus with other European powers. Italy supported the Dollfuss government in Austria in 1934 when Austrian Nazis tried to crush the government with the clandestine German assistance. 

Subsequently, Italy and France formed a Franco-Italian Alliance in 1935 to guarantee Austrian independence. Union of Austria with Germany (Anschluss) was forbidden in the Treaty of Versailles. 

Italy negotiated the Stresa front that was formed in 1935 with the two democratic western powers, France and Britain. 

However, there was a change in equations in the Italy’s foreign policy. Britain concluded a naval agreement with Germany without the acknowledgement of France and Italy. 

In October, 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia with the aim of forming a small African Empire, gaining prestige and trade. By this time, Mussolini made Italy a super imperialist power. 

The main reason behind the invasion of Abyssinia was that he aimed to boost the popularity of the regime by providing an outlet for over-population in Italy. Abyssinia was the main target as it was the only independent country. At the same time, Abyssinian forces were poorly equipped and could not resist Italian attack. 

The League of Nations took punitive measures against the unjust invasion of Abyssinia. However, the League could not maintain international collective security, which was one of the aspects of the League. Thus, the League failed to protect Abyssinia as Mussolini could not be deterred. 

The second Italo-Abyssinian war was also called the Rape of Ethiopia, which lasted seven months in 1935-36. It is often regarded as precursor to World War-II and a demonstration of the inefficiency of the League.

The Indo-Pak War of 1965 was the culmination of a series of disputes between India and Pakistan. 

Causes: 

Partition of India : The partition of India even led to dispute over sharing of river waters. The water of nearly all the rivers – Indus, Chenab, Sutlej, Beas and Ravi flowed from India. In 1948 India stopped the water of these rivers. 

Indus Water Treaty Dispute : A dispute ensued and the Indus Water Treaty of 1960 was signed between Nehru and Ayub Khan. After this Pakistan was to use waters of Jhelum, Chenab and Indus while India was to use the waters of Sutlej, Beas and Ravi. 

Dispute over Border : The boundary commission tried to settle the border dispute. A dispute ensued over Rann of Kutch in 1965. Pakistan attacked near Kutch border. India referred the dispute to UN. Seeing this as India’s weakness, Pakistan tried to outrage Kashmir. On 5th August, 1965 Pakistan . stationed troops along the LOC. 

Consequences: 

Defeat of Pakistan : The war began following Pakistan’s Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate irregular “Jihadi” forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against the rule by India. Pakistan faced a shameful defeat in the war. 

Tashkent Declaration : War ended in a United Nations mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration. 

Attitude of Pakistan : At the conclusion of the War, many Pakistanis considered the performance of their military to be positive. 6th September is celebrated as Defence Day i n Pakistan, in commemoration of successful defence of Lahore against the Indian Army. 

1. After the Tashkent declaration the two nations got disillusioned and Z. A. Bhutto, Pakistani’s premier said that the Hindu Culture was determined to devour Islamic Culture. 

2. Pakistan showed hard postures to solve Kashmir dispute. 

3. Pakistan allowed China to use road in Gilgit, an area of Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. 

4. Disputes even emerged over the use of Ganga waters and construction of Farakka barrage. 

5. With this, the relations between the two countries further reached at its lowest level in 1971, which resulted in the emergence of a civil war in East Pakistan.

The Cabinet Mission Plan : In the absence of any agreed solution, the Cabinet Mission announced its own recommendations on 16 May, 1946. These recommendation are known as the Cabinet Mission Plan which included : A Union of India, embracing both British India and the Princely States, would deal with three subjects namely, defence, foreign affairs and communication and would have the powers necessary to raise the finance required for the above subjects. 

All subjects other than the union subjects and all residuary powers would rest with the provinces of British India. 

The Princely States would also retain all subjects other than those ceded to the Union. 

Provinces would be free to form groups and each group would be free to decide the provincial subjects to be held in common. 

The three groups proposed were : 

• Madras, Bombay, United Provinces, Bihar, Central Province and Orissa. 

• Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and Sindh. 

• Bengal and Assam. 

A province could opt out of the group if the majority of the members of its legislature so decided. 

The new constitution was also to contain a provision that any province might call for the amendment or reconsideration of the Constitution after the initial period of ten years and a ten year interval thereafter. 

It provided for Constituent Assembly to draw up the future constitution of the country. The Constituent Assembly was to consist of 389 members, 292 from British India and 93 from Princely States and 4 members represented the Chief Commissioners’ Provinces. 

To carry on the country’s administration while the Constitution making was proceeding, an interim Government having the support of the major political parties would be set up.

The General Assembly adopted the ‘Uniting for Peace Resolution’ because Security Council failed to exercise its primary responsibility for the mainte-nance of international Peace and Security.

The immediate reaction of the Arab states to the creation of the new state of Israel in 1948 was that the Arab-Israeli war of 1948 broke out when five Arab nations invaded territory in the former Palestinian mandate immediately following the announcement of the independence of the state of Israel on May 14,1948.

Solidarity led the movement against communism in Poland.

J. F. Kennedy and L. B. Johnson and Roosevelt were the two democrat Presidents who were sympathetic to the demands of black Americans.

Sukumar Sen.