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Combination of optical dosage and routes of administration will induce a PEAK immune RESPONSE in a given ANIMAL. An insufficient DOSE will not stimulate an immune response. An excessive dose does not give a peak immune response because it causes a state of immunological unresponsiveness or nonresponse known as immunological TOLERANCE.

Combination of optical dosage and routes of administration will induce a peak immune response in a given animal. An insufficient dose will not stimulate an immune response. An excessive dose does not give a peak immune response because it causes a state of immunological unresponsiveness or nonresponse known as immunological tolerance.

Antigenantibody interaction is similar to an ENZYME SUBSTRATE interaction. The reaction between ANTIGEN and antibody occurs in two stages. Primary stage is the initial interaction of antigenantibody without any visible effect .The reaction is rapid and obeys the general LAW of thermodynamics and physical chemistry.

The primary stage is followed by the secondary stage leading to demonstrate events such as precipitation, lysis of cells, neutralization of TOXINS and fixation of compliments etc.

Antigenantibody interaction is similar to an enzyme substrate interaction. The reaction between antigen and antibody occurs in two stages. Primary stage is the initial interaction of antigenantibody without any visible effect .The reaction is rapid and obeys the general law of thermodynamics and physical chemistry.

The primary stage is followed by the secondary stage leading to demonstrate events such as precipitation, lysis of cells, neutralization of toxins and fixation of compliments etc.

1. The reaction is specific and ANTIGEN combines only with its corresponding antibody and vice versa.
2. Entire molecules react but not the fragment.
3. There is no denaturation of antigen or antibody during the reaction.
4. The combination of antigen – antibody is FIRM but reversible. The FIRMNESS of the reaction is INFLUENCED by the affinity and avidity of the reaction.
5. Both antigens and antibodies participate in the formation of agglutination and precipitation REACTIONS.
6. Antigens and antibodies can combine in various proportions unlike chemicals with fixed valancy.

ANTIGEN ANTIBODY reaction is specific and specificity is determined by special CONFIGURATION of antigenic DETERMINE.

Antigen antibody reaction is specific and specificity is determined by special configuration of antigenic determine.

In this METHOD, the SPECIES antibodies are PRIMARY antibodies, which are DIRECTLY conjugated to FLUORESCENT dye.

In this method, the species antibodies are primary antibodies, which are directly conjugated to fluorescent dye.

A SEPARATE FLUORESCENT CONJUGATE have to be PREPARED against each ANTIGEN to be tested.

A separate fluorescent conjugate have to be prepared against each antigen to be tested.

In a method the primary UNLABELLED antibody is detected with a NUMBER of REAGENTS have been developed for indirect staining. The most COMMON is fluorescence labeled ANTI isotype antibody such as fluoroscin labeled goatmouse antibody.

In a method the primary unlabelled antibody is detected with a number of reagents have been developed for indirect staining. The most common is fluorescence labeled anti isotype antibody such as fluoroscin labeled goatmouse antibody.

The primary does not need to be CONJUGATED with LABEL.

It increases the sensitivity of staining because multiple fluorochrome reagents will BIND to each antibody MOLECULE.

This method has great flexibility.

The primary does not need to be conjugated with label.

It increases the sensitivity of staining because multiple fluorochrome reagents will bind to each antibody molecule.

This method has great flexibility.

1. For IDENTIFYING bacterial SPECIES
2. Detecting ANTIGENANTIBODY complexes in autoimmune DISEASES
3. Detecting compliment COMPONENTS in tissues.
4. Localizing hormones

ENZYME LINKED IMMUNO Sorbant ASSAY.

Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbant Assay.

The basic principle is an ENZYME conjugated to n antibody reacts with a COLORLESS SUBSTRATE to generate a colored PRODUCT.

The basic principle is an enzyme conjugated to n antibody reacts with a colorless substrate to generate a colored product.

1. ALKALINE, phosphatase, HORSERADISH, preoxidase
2. Para NITRO phenyl phosphatase

It is USED for the detection and for identification of EITHER ANTIGEN or ANTIBODY.

It is used for the detection and for identification of either antigen or antibody.

It can be carried out in three ways.

• Indirect ELISA
• SAND WITCH ELISA
• Competitive ELISA

It can be carried out in three ways.

It is used for the detection of the PRESENCE of serum antibodies against immuno deficiency virus (HIV, the CAUSATIVE AGENT of AIDS).

It is used for the detection of the presence of serum antibodies against immuno deficiency virus (HIV, the causative agent of AIDS).

Enzymes used for LABELING of ANTIBODIES are horseradish PEROXIDASE, alkaline PHOSPHATASE, ßgalactosidase, lacto preoxidase, etc.

Enzymes used for labeling of antibodies are horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, ßgalactosidase, lacto preoxidase, etc.

Identification of specific protein in a complex mixture of PROTEINS can be accomplished bye a technique that is KNOWN as WESTERN BLOTTING.

Identification of specific protein in a complex mixture of proteins can be accomplished bye a technique that is known as western blotting.

It is a competitive BINDING assay in which FIXED amount of ANTIBODY and radiolabelled antigen REACT in the presence of unlabelled antigen.

It is a competitive binding assay in which fixed amount of antibody and radiolabelled antigen react in the presence of unlabelled antigen.

In this TECHNIQUE, the ANTIGEN is GENERALLY LABELED with aemitting ISOTOPES such as I125.

In this technique, the antigen is generally labeled with aemitting isotopes such as I125.

It is the most sensitive TECHNIQUE used for detecting antigen or ANTIBODY. This TYPE of reaction is also called as binder ligand ASSAY.

It is the most sensitive technique used for detecting antigen or antibody. This type of reaction is also called as binder ligand assay.

The SUBSTANCE whose concentration is to be DETERMINED is CALLED as an analyte or LIGAND.

The substance whose concentration is to be determined is called as an analyte or ligand.

The BINDING PROTEIN (usually antibody) which BINDS to the ligand is called as binder.

The binding protein (usually antibody) which binds to the ligand is called as binder.

First EXPOSURE to an ANTIGEN PRODUCES PRIMARY immune response.

First exposure to an antigen produces primary immune response.

After immunogen is introduced no antibody is DETECTED, this is latent or INDUCTIVE PERIOD. In this period, immunogen is RECOGNIZED as a foreign substance.

After immunogen is introduced no antibody is detected, this is latent or inductive period. In this period, immunogen is recognized as a foreign substance.

SECONDARY immune RESPONSE OCCURS when second exposure to the same ANTIGEN occurs after weeks, months or after YEARS.

Secondary immune response occurs when second exposure to the same antigen occurs after weeks, months or after years.

Vaccination MEANS exploiting the immune system to PROTECT against infectious diseases. Vaccination is done to protect against LETHAL diseases such as MUMPS, rubella, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, tetanus, SMALL pox etc.

Vaccination means exploiting the immune system to protect against infectious diseases. Vaccination is done to protect against lethal diseases such as mumps, rubella, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, tetanus, small pox etc.

Adjuvant potentates the immune response Vaccines NEED to be enhanced by some SUBSTANCES, these substances are CALLED ADJUVANTS.

Adjuvant potentates the immune response Vaccines need to be enhanced by some substances, these substances are called adjuvants.

1. ORGANIC ADJUVANTS
2. SYNTHETIC adjuvants
3. Tuftsin

Immuno suppression is PARTICULARLY given to the patients who are undergoing organ transplantation in the TREATMENT of autoimmunity, graft REJECTION and in ALLERGY conditions.

Immuno suppression is particularly given to the patients who are undergoing organ transplantation in the treatment of autoimmunity, graft rejection and in allergy conditions.

• CYTOTOXIC AGENTS such as chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, and azathioprine
• GLUCOCORTICOIDS
• Cyclosporine
• Antilymphocyte antibodies

DISEASE caused by immunological REACTION to selfantigen. Such type of diseases is classified EITHER organ specific or nonorgan specific.

Disease caused by immunological reaction to selfantigen. Such type of diseases is classified either organ specific or nonorgan specific.

If humoral or cellular IMMUNITY is switch on to HIGH for length of time, tissue DAMAGE may occur. Such REACTIONS are called hypersensitive reactions.

If humoral or cellular immunity is switch on to high for length of time, tissue damage may occur. Such reactions are called hypersensitive reactions.

COOMBS and GELL.

Coombs and Gell.

The particles COATED with immune complexes and are RELEASED from FOLLICULAR dendritic CELL extensions, are called as iccosomes.

The particles coated with immune complexes and are released from follicular dendritic cell extensions, are called as iccosomes.

ANTIBODY can BIND to an ANTIGEN but cannot induce agglutination is CALLED INCOMPLETE antibody.

Antibody can bind to an antigen but cannot induce agglutination is called incomplete antibody.

Opsonin is a substance, which promotes PHAGOCYTOSIS of ANTIGENS by binding to them.

Opsonin is a substance, which promotes phagocytosis of antigens by binding to them.

It is a MONOCLONAL IMMUNOGLOBULIN PRODUCED from a MYELOMA CELL.

It is a monoclonal immunoglobulin produced from a myeloma cell.

We can RECOGNIZE the SYMPTOMS only DAYS after exposure. This is DELAYED hypersensitivity (DTH).

We can recognize the Symptoms only days after exposure. This is delayed hypersensitivity (DTH).

The inflammatory response PRODUCED by inflammatory molecules result in tissue damage and some TIMES even death. We call this as hypersensitivity or ALLERGY.

The inflammatory response produced by inflammatory molecules result in tissue damage and some times even death. We call this as hypersensitivity or allergy.

It is most RAPID hypersensitive reaction. It responds WITHIN MINUTES of applying a stimulus and can get localize. Reactions are MEDIATED by release of pharmacologically active substances.

It is most rapid hypersensitive reaction. It responds within minutes of applying a stimulus and can get localize. Reactions are mediated by release of pharmacologically active substances.

Hypersensitivity is classified into five types:

1. Anaphylaxis
2. ANTIBODY DEPENDANT cytotoxicity
3. Immune complex mediated DISEASES
4. Delayed type ‘o’ CELL mediated hypersensitivity
5. STIMULATORY hypersensitivity

Hypersensitivity is classified into five types:

Cross reactivity is often OBSERVED in POLYSACCHARIDE antigens that contain similar oligosaccharide residue. A, B, O blood group antigens These are GLYCOPROTEIN expressed on RBC.

Cross reactivity is often observed in polysaccharide antigens that contain similar oligosaccharide residue. A, B, O blood group antigens These are glycoprotein expressed on RBC.

Antigenantibody reactions are specific, but in some cases antibody elicited by one ANTIGEN can CROSS react with another antigen. This reaction is called as crossreaction and the antigen that produces crossreaction is called as crossreactive antigen. Crossreaction is DUE to the PRESENCE of two or more antigenic determinants on the related antigen.

Antigenantibody reactions are specific, but in some cases antibody elicited by one antigen can cross react with another antigen. This reaction is called as crossreaction and the antigen that produces crossreaction is called as crossreactive antigen. Crossreaction is due to the presence of two or more antigenic determinants on the related antigen.

The capacity of an antiserum containing VARIOUS antibodies to COMBINE with the whole antigen is called avidity. Thus, avidity is used to denote the overall capacity of an antibody to combine with multivalent antigen.

A multivalent antigen has many TYPES of ANTIGENIC determinants, when this is injected into the BLOOD each antigenic determinant stimulate the production of particular antibody.

The capacity of an antiserum containing various antibodies to combine with the whole antigen is called avidity. Thus, avidity is used to denote the overall capacity of an antibody to combine with multivalent antigen.

A multivalent antigen has many types of antigenic determinants, when this is injected into the blood each antigenic determinant stimulate the production of particular antibody.

The STRENGTH of binding of an ANTIBODY to a monovalent ANTIGEN or SINGLE antigenic determinant is CALLED affinity of an antibody.

The strength of binding of an antibody to a monovalent antigen or single antigenic determinant is called affinity of an antibody.

Temporary transfer of electrons from one MOLECULE to another will result in the force of ATTRACTION between them. This is seen when the interacting MOLECULES come CLOSE to each other.

Temporary transfer of electrons from one molecule to another will result in the force of attraction between them. This is seen when the interacting molecules come close to each other.

Contribute up to 50% of the TOTAL STRENGTH of antigenantibody interactions. These reactions are found when ever the side chains of NONPOLAR AMINO acids of antigenantibody come together.

Contribute up to 50% of the total strength of antigenantibody interactions. These reactions are found when ever the side chains of nonpolar amino acids of antigenantibody come together.

Reversible hydrogen bonds are formed between hydrophilic GROUPS such as hydroxyl, AMINO and carboxylic group. Although hydrogen bonds are relatively weak, they PLAY an important role in INTERACTION of antigenantibody.

Reversible hydrogen bonds are formed between hydrophilic groups such as hydroxyl, amino and carboxylic group. Although hydrogen bonds are relatively weak, they play an important role in interaction of antigenantibody.

These are FORMED due to the attraction between OPPOSITE charged protein side CHAINS.

These are formed due to the attraction between opposite charged protein side chains.

The PROCESS that holds antigenantibody together is called nonspecific INTERACTIONS. Inter molecular forces may be CLASSIFIED into four1.

1. ELECTROSTATIC bonds
2. Hydrogen bonds
3. Hydrophobic interactions
4. VANDER Val interactions

The process that holds antigenantibody together is called nonspecific interactions. Inter molecular forces may be classified into four1.