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Land reforms were successful in Kerala and West Bengal because these states had Government committed to the policy of the land to the tillers.

System of ownership of land and small size of the-farmers are the main causes of the backwardness of Indian agriculture.

Policy which frames rules and regulations for industrial development in order to fulfill goals and objectives of the economy is called industrial policy.

This industrial policy refers to the policy of the Government towards the development of industries.

The main objectives of the new industrial policy are as follows:

1. To correct weaknesses that may have crept the industrial structure as its has developed over last four decades.

2. To consolidate the strengths built up during the last four decades of economic planning and to build on the gains already made.

3. To maintain a sustained growth in productivity and gainful employment.

4. To attain international competitiveness.

In market economy i.e., capitalistic economy.

Socialistic economy i.e., centrally planned economy.

Under subsistence agriculture, a farmer mainly produces those crops which are required to meet the most immediate needs of his family. These are Primarily food crops and to some extent nonfood crops like cotton, sugarcane, etc.,

On the other hand, under commercial agriculture, a farmer cultivates those crops which find a ready market. The farmer sells the crops in the Market and with the cash received from the sale of crops, he purchases the goods required by him.

Self-reliance: Self reliance means avoiding import of those goods which could be produced in a country (say India) itself Necessity of the policy of self-reliance: the policy of self-reliance was considered necessary due to the following reasons: 

1. To reduce our dependence on foreign countries, especially for food.

2. It was feared that dependence on imported food supplies foreign technology and foreign capital may make India Vulnerable to foreign interference in our policies.

It was necessary for a developing country like India to follow self reliance as a planning objective otherwise, it would increase the country’s dependence on foreign products. Further, it was feared that dependence on imported food supplies, foreign technology, and foreign capital may make India’s sovereignties vulnerable to foreign interference in our policies.

Tertiary sector maybe defined as that sector which includes trade and commerce transport storage communication, trade, financing, etc.,

Yes, the British in India made various positive contributions. The contributions were not intentional but purely the effects of colonial exploitation of the British. The following are the positive contributions made by the British:  

(i)  Introduction of Railways: The introduction of railways by the British was a breakthrough in the development process of Indian economy. It opened up the cultural and geographical barriers and facilitated commercialization of Indian agriculture.  

(ii)  Introduction of Commercialization of Agriculture: The introduction of commercial agriculture is an important breakthrough in the history of Indian agriculture. Prior to the advent of the British, Indian agriculture was of subsistence nature. However, with the commercialization of agriculture, the agricultural production was carried out as per the market  requirements. It was due to this factor that today India can aimatattaining self-sufficiency in food grains production.     

(iii)  Introduced Free Trade to India: British forced India to follow free trade pattern during the colonial rule. This is the key concept of globalization today. The free trade provided domestic industry with a platform to compete with the Britain industries. The introduction of free trade led to an increase in the volume of India's export rapidly.   

(iv)  Development of Infrastructure: The infrastructure developed in India by the British proved  as useful tool to check the spread of famines. The telegram and postal services served Indian public.  

(v)  Promoted Western Culture: English as a language promoted westernized form of education. The English language acted as a window to the outside world. This has integrated India with the rest of the world.

The contribution of the British rule can be studied as follows:

1. Development of means of transport, especially railway and communication.

2. Political and economic unification of the country. 

3. Evolution of banking and monetary system.

4. Introduction of the modem techniques of production and management.

5. Evolution of new social order based on progressive ideas.

6. Stability, peace, and order.

7. Emergence of market economy and capital enterprise.

8. Introduction of new system of education.

9. Establishment of civil laws and courts.

Before independence India had extensive trade relations with other countries of Asia and Europe. India’s exports were cotton textiles, raw silk, and silk fabrics. Indigo, rice, wheat, sugar, Pepper and spices, precious stones.

Lac, mica, opium, and drugs Imports consisted of pearls, Wool, dates, dry fruits, glass, iron and steel, copper, lead, tinhorn paper, perfumes, etc., The cotton textile of India enjoyed a worldwide reputation and the demand for cotton textiles was all over the world. India exported more than it imported it had a favorable balance of trade, large quantities of gold and silver flowed into India. India enjoyed a very important and unique position in world trade.

During the colonial rule, the British followed a discriminatory tariff policy under which they imposed heavy tariffs (export duties) on India's export of handicraft products, while allowing free export of India's raw material to Britain and free import of British products to India. This made Indian exports costlier and its international demand fell drastically. India's export basket during the colonial rule comprised mainly of primary products like sugar, jute, silk, etc. and the imports comprised of finished consumer goods like cotton, woolen clothes, etc. from Britain. As the monopoly power of India's export and import rested with Britain, so, more than half of India's trade was restricted to Britain and the remaining imports were directed towards China, Persia, and Sri Lanka. The opening up of Suez Canal further intensified the monopoly power of the British over India's foreign trade. It led to the fast movement of goods from India to Britain and vice-versa. The surplus generated from India's foreign trade was not invested in Indian economy; rather it was used for administrative and war purposes. This led to the drain of Indian wealth to Britain.

Sectoral composition of an economy is the contribution of sectors such as the agricultural sector, service sector and industrial sector to the GDP of an economy.

Yes, it is necessary that the service sector should contribute maximum to the GDP of an economy. When an economy grows, there exists a situation called structural transformation. This implies that the economy's dependence on the agricultural sector will decrease to the minimum level and the share of the industrial and service sectors in the total GDP will increase over the years. The growth in the performance of the service sector with higher contribution to the total GDP is an indication of economic development. 

The GDP of a country is derived from the different sectors of the country, namely the agricultural sector, the industrial sector, and the service sector. The contribution made by each of these sectors makes up the structural composition of the economy.

Yes, it is necessary that at the Later stages of development, service sector should contribute the maximum to the total GDP. This phenomenon is called structural transformation. With the development the share of agriculture declines and the share of industry becomes dominant. At higher levels of development, the contribution of service sector becomes more than the two sectors. This has been observed in the case of developed economies of the world.

India's first official census operation was undertaken in the year 1881. After that the census has been conducted after every 10 years. It involves a detailed estimation of population size, along with a complete demographic profile of the country.

India’s first official census took place in 1881.

The focus of the economic policies pursued by the colonial Government was the protection and promotion of economic interest of her home country. These policies intended to transform India into supplier of raw materials and consumer of finished industrial products from Britain.

Impact of policies:

The impacts of these policies were as under:

1. India become supplier of raw materials and consumer of finished goods produced in Briten.

2. The agriculture sector continued to experience stagnation and deterioration during British rule.

3. The vast majority of people in India led a miserable life.

4. Many of the cottage and small scale industries declined under the British rule.

5. More than half of India’s foreign trade was restricted to Britain.

6. The country’s growth of aggregate real output during the first half of the 20th century was less than this percent.

7. There was hardly any capital goods industry to promote further industrialisation of India.

8. The contribution of new industrial sector to the gross domestic product remained very small.

9. The industrial sector cried for modernisation and diversification.

10. There was rampant poverty and unemployment.

A plan spells out how the resources of a nation should be put to use. It should have some general goals as well as specific objectives which are to be achieved within a specified period of time.

22.6 million hectare of land in 1950-51 and 63 million hectare i.e. 45% of total agricultural land in 2012-13.

When comparing currencies of two countries it is necessary to convert values such as national income to a common currency. This is done by purchasing power parity. So, purchasing power parity means equalizing the purchasing power of two currencies by considering the differences in their cost of living and inflation.

In 1950s there were 20 universities and 500 colleges. This increased to 719 universities and 35,000 colleges by 2013-14.

Agriculture:

• Agriculture in India was quite prosperous. India used to grow variety of crops.
• Indian villages were self-reliant and basic necessities like grains, vegetables, fruits, clothes, shoes, etc. were produced in the villages itself.
• Villagers” also used to practice cattle rearing and dairy farming.
• Thus, village life was happy and economy was prosperous.

Industries:

• As per historian Rai Chaudhary, before 19th century, India was an important manufacturing centre for some items.
• India was famous for its cotton, jute, muslin, wool, idols, indigo, terracotta, earthenware, etc. Some of these goods were even exported.

In 1770 A.D.

2300 MW in 1950-51 and 2,43,000 MW in 2011-12.

During the British rule, India’s economy got ruined and people became poor. There were several negative and some positive aspects of British Rule in India. They are discussed below.

(A) Positive aspects:
1. Railway:

• The British established the railway infrastructure in India.
• The first rail ran in India between Boribandar (presently, CST in Mumbai) and Thane on 16th of April, 1853.
• By 1947 i.e. when India became independent, India’s rail network spread to 53,000 km. and served 68 lakh people.

2. Roadways:
The British created a good network of roadways in India.

• -> They set-up Public Works Department (PWD). PWD used to raise several important and basic utilities needed by a city or town.
  -> By the end of 19th century, Indians roads were spread to 2,78,420 km. This increased to 4,47,105 by 1943. 32% of these roads were concrete (‘pakka’) roads and 68% were ‘kachcha’ roads.

3. Banks:

• In India, private banks started in 1770 A.D. By 1946 A.D. there were more than 700 banks in India.
• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) which is the apex bank today was set up in 1935.

4. Social structure:
Certain wrong social practices that existed in India such as prevention of female infanticide, sati pratha, etc. were abolished during the British rule.

(B) Negative aspects:
1. Agriculture:

• Agriculture in Indian suffered from low revenues, ‘Zamindari’ (landlordship) system and cruel acts of the British.
• The poor farmers were exploited in several ways and they became poorer.
• For example, when industrial revolution began in Britain, the British needed indigo for their textile industries. So, they forced Indian farmers grow more indigo. However if farmers took a loan to grow indigo and incurred loss, the British government neither helped them nor waived off their loans. This way the farmers started getting suppressed under the burden of debts.

2. Land revenue:

• The East India Company got the right to collect land revenue from Indian kings. With this they also got the right to collect land revenue from farmers who owned lands.
• Later, the British started collecting land revenues from the farmers via. the Zamindars. The British punished the farmers who failed to give revenues by confiscating their land, charging fines and so on. Land revenues were as high as half of the produce of farmers. All these ruined the agricultural economy of India and made it poorer.

3. High rates of taxes:
As per a calculation made by Dadabhai Naoroji, in 1876, the rich contributed only about 8% of the national income as taxes while the poor Indians contributed 15% of the national income as taxes.

4. High rates of excise and customs:

• The British collected high excise on match sticks, sugar, steel, silver and all such commodities.
• Though salt was easily available and produced in India, the British termed its production illegal. Then they monopolized salt trade, imported salt to India by charging high custom duties and made it an expensive commodity for poor Indians.
• To suppress the Indian cotton industry, the British levied high custom duty of upto 15% on cotton cloth exported from India. On the other hand, the British imported the cotton cloth from Manchester (England) at a much lower import duty of only about 2.5%.
• The British used to buy and export cotton from India at cheap rates to England and after manufacturing clothes from same cotton used to import and sell those clothes in India and earn huge profits.
• Thus, India’s raw materials were exported so that British industry could thrive at the cost of Indian industry.

5. Industrial policy:

• The period from 1750 to 1830 was the period of Industrial Revolution in the west.
• Also, during this period the East India Company started establishing its rule in India. By 1858 it established its rule completely.
• Due to unjust policies of the British Government, the Indian investors had lost their confidence.
• Due to these reasons, the Indian industries did not develop much. Our industries produced only few light and consumer goods. We did not have heavy and basic industries that could produce machines, engineering equipment, heavy chemicals and other such key products.

6. Economic exploitation:
The British adopted policies to ruin India’s economy and fill its own pockets and industries. As a result, Indian resources and agriculture were ruined under the heavy burden of taxes and revenues and cruel and unjust policies.

7. Exploitation of artisans:

• The East India Company used to buy goods from Indian artisans at 15% to 40% lower prices and sold them in the world at higher prices. This way they exploited Indian artisans and made high profits.
• Moreover, after the British Government rule was set-up, the British started selling goods manufactured in England at quite cheap rates in India. This ruined the small scale industries oHndia.

8. Investment pattern:

• The British invested only in those sectors of India which benefited Britain. For example, they created railways and roadways to move their raw materials and goods for their industry.
• They invested in education to educate Indians so that such educated Indians could run the British administration. On the other hand, they did not allow Indians to obtain education in science and technical fields to restrict India’s growth.
• They needed civil engineers for public works departments in India and in Britain and doctors for their treatment in India. So, they started colleges for medicine and civil engineering in India for their own benefit.
• Thus, the investment pattern of the British was very selfish and they invested only in selected areas that could benefit them.

9. Payment burden:

• Over and above the huge salaries that the British used to draw from income earned from India, they were also paid a large sum as ‘home charges’ to the British personnel in India.
• The home charges included expenses of the British administration, maintenance of the British Army, war expenses, pensions to retired British officers and other expenses made by Britain for maintaining her colonies.
• These home charges were made of three components, They are:
  1. Interest payments for debts incurred in maintaining Indian colony,
  2. Interest on the railways and
  3. Civil and military charges.

Conclusion:
The British ruined the healthy and prosperous Indian agriculture and economy -and made India a very poor country. It came to India for trade but strictly did only those activities which benefitted only the British.

Indus Valley Civilization which is also known as Hara’ppan civilization.

48.9% was the employment in agriculture in the year 2011-12.

Correct option is (A) 48.9%

P.C.Mahalanobis floated the idea of planning in India first of all.

In India, Prime Minister is the chairperson of planning commission.

Invisible items are services like tourism, transport by shipping or by airways and financing services such as insurance and banking. They also include gifts and interest profits and dividend.

Before 1921 India was in the first stage of demographic transition.

After  1921.

Mulmal Shahi or Mulmal k has implied that it is worn by or fit for the royalty.

The finest variety of muslin was called Mulmal.

Modem industry began to take root in India during the second half of the 19^th century.

Per capita income is the average income per come It is calculated by dividing national income by population.

Per capita income = National income , Population

(c) JC Kumarappa

(a) Jawaharlal Nehru

LPG refers to the economic reforms done in 1991 under the policy of Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization (LPG).

Correct option is (D) None of these

Although, the mismanagement and wrong planning in PSUs may lead to misallocation and, consequently, to wastage of the scarce resources and finance but PSUs do have some positive and useful advantages. 

(i) Enhancing Nation's Welfare: The main motive of the PSU was to provide goods and services that add to the welfare of the country as a whole. For example, schools, hospitals, electricity, etc. These services not only enhance welfare of country's population but also enhance the future prospects of economic growth and development.  

(ii) Long Gestation Projects: It was not feasible and economically viable for the private sectors to invest in the big and wide projects like basic industries and electricity, railways, roads, etc. This is because these projects need a very huge initial investment and have long gestation period. Hence, PSU is the most appropriate to invest in these projects.  

(iii) Basic Framework: An important ideology that was inherited in the initial five year plans was that the public sector should lay down the basic framework for industrialization that would encourage the private sector at the latter stage of industrialization.  

(iv) Socialist Track: In the initial years after independence, Indian planners and thinkers were more inclined towards socialist pattern. It was justified on the rational ground that if the government controls the productive resources and production, then it would mislead the country's economic growth. This was the basic rationale to set up PSUs. These PSUs produce goods not according to the price signals but according to the social needs and economic welfare growth of the country.  

(v) Reduce Inequality of Income and Generate Employment Opportunities: It was assumed that in order to reduce inequalities of income, eradicate poverty and to raise the standard of living, government sector should invest in the economy via PSUs.

Public sector undertakings were assigned a key role while formulating strategy for planning because of the following reasons:

1. Growth of heavy capital goods industries.

2. Establishment of socialistic pattern of society.

3. Balanced regional growth.

4. It generates about 26. percent of national income produced by the country.

5. The public sector provides jobs to 185 lakh persons.

6. Surplus earned by the public sector enterprises have become an important source of non¬tax revenue of the Government.

7. Public sector enterprises check the concentration of economic power.

A small scale industry is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets of a unit. This limit changes over a period of time. In 1950, a small scale industrial unit was one which invested a maximum of Rs.5 lakhs, at present the maximum investment allowed is Rs. One crore. These industries play a very significant role in every economy even in the more advanced countries like Japan and U. S. A and even in developing countries like India. Hence they are very important.

1. Small scale industries are labour intensive and capital light industries. The labour requirement per unit is high.

2. The import requirements of these industries are limited.

3. These industries promote regional balanced development and help to avoid concentration of economic power.

4. These industries are useful for those goods whose market is limited.

5. These industries can solve the problem of unemployment, poverty, and backwardness.

6. They help in decentralisation of industries throughout the country.

The various Measures taken by the Government for the development of cottage and small scale industries are:

1. Small industries are exempted from excise duties. This enables them to seek their products at lower prices.

2. 836 products have been exclusively reserved for production in small sector, large industries cannot produce them.

3. Training institutes have been set up throughout the country. These help small industries to upgrade their skills and modernise their technology.