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Big agricultural landlords

Pataliputra was the second capital of Magadha

Harisenan is the writer of ‘Prayag-Prasashti.

The first capital of Magadha was Rajgraha. Rajgraha means the house of the king. It was situated among five hills. Fortresses were built around Rajgraha to protect it from enemies In the 4^th century BC, the capital was moved to Pataliputra, known as Patna today.

Megasthenes is the author of ‘Indika'

In the 6^th century BC, many independent countries came up in North India. Amongst these there were 16 big countries that were called Mahajanapada. The most important of them were Vajji, Magagham, Kosalam, Kuru, Panchaiam, Gandharam and Avanthi. The Buddhist and Jain Books often speak about these countries. The Buddhist book ‘Anguttara nikaya’ and the Jain religious books Bhagvat Sutra’ and ‘Vakhya Prajapati’ mention the following 16 Mahajanapadas.

1.  Anga 

2.  Magadha 

3.  Vajji 

4.  Kashi 

5.  Malia 

6. Koshala 

7.  Ashmaka 

8. Avanti 

9. Vatsa 

10.  Chedi

11. Panchalam 

12. Shurasena 

13. Matsya 

14. Kuru 

15.  Gandhara 

16.  Kamboja

James Prinsep was an official of the East India Company. He is the one who read the Brahmi Script for the first time. Most of the inscriptions were about a king called Priyadarshi, which means joyful to look at. It was Prisep who found this out. He also found the Kharoshti script.

Indo-Greeks was the first person to bring out coins with the name and picture of the ruler

Answer is Kusharts 

Bimbisara was the first ruler of Magadha

James Pnnsep

Kushans were the rulers that brought out the first gold coins.

James Prinsep

Besides laying the foundation of a strong administrative system, which he inherited from his grandfather Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka tried to hold his empire together by propagating dharama and ensuring the well-being of his subjects in this world and the next.

According to Megasthenes, they were about six sub-committees for coordinating military activities, one looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, and the third was responsible for foot - soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.

The great officers of the state under the Mauryas did a lot of duties. Some superintend the rivers, measure the land, and inspect the sluices by which water was let out from the main canals into their branches. All officers collected the taxes, and superintend the occupation concerned with land, as those of the woodcutters, the carpenters, the blacksmiths, and the miners.

Here is an excerpt from the account of Megasthenses: Of the great officer of state, some ... superintend the rivers, measure the land, as is done in Egypt, and inspect the sluices by which water is let out from the main canal into their branches, so that everyone may have an equal supply of it. The same person has charge also of the huntsmen, and is entrusted with the power of rewarding or punishing them according to their deserts. They collect the taxes, and superintend the occupations connected with land; as those of the woodcutters, the carpenters, the blacksmiths, and the miners.

• Central administration -King had Control over legislative, executive and Judiciary. Actually he was the most powerful person in empire.
• Providence Administration - the Empire was divided into many provinces governed by governor. 
• Local Government - There was a committee of 3 members to maintain rules and regulations in Patliputra. 
• Existence of cabinet to give advice and to help for running of Administration 
• Five major political centers in empire 
• Organized Army -a Committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity.
• To spread Dhamma Mahamattra. 
• Officers for the land revenue, irrigation and road. 
• Strict Law and Order system was setup. 
• Institution of spies was very strong and working effectively.

Some writers do not consider the Mauryan period as an important era in Indian history. The Mauryan Empire lasted for only a few decades. It was in power for only about 150 years. In the extensive history of the subcontinent, that period is not at all big. Moreover, it did not spread to the entire subcontinent. Even in the Empire itself, the control was of different kinds. Because of this loose administration, by the 2^nd century BC, there were many small kingdoms and chiefdoms.

The Kings and Chiefs found a short cut to acquire higher social status. They simply claimed themselves to be representatives of certain deities. Kushanstried this trick very efficiently. They were in power from 131 century BC to 1^st century AD. They were part of  Central Asian Tribe. They ruled an extensive region from Central Asia to the North-Western India. Kanishka was the most famous king in the Kushana Dynasty. Their history was recreated from the information in the inscriptions and some traditional books.

The concepts of the Kushans regarding kingship are inscribed on their coins and sculptures. Huge statues of Kushana Kings were discovered in the Mat temple near Mathura and also in Afghanistan. Some historians think that these huge statues point out that the Kushan Kings considered themselves equal to god.

Most of the Kushan Kings took the title ‘Devaputra’. They must have got their inspiration to do that from the Chinese Kings who thought themselves to be the sons of God.

Coins, stone edicts and Prasashtis (literature). From all these, the history of the Gupta Kings could be re-created.

• Arthashastra of Kautilya. 
• Ashoka's Inscriptions.

• Because it teaches to respect elders, love for young and kindness to subordinate/servants. 
• Religious tolerance to other religions. 
• Liberal policies towards Bharmanas and learned persons. 
• Non- Violence.

Ordinary people could not leave behind any historical evidence about their life. Hence, the historians use a variety of sources to reconstruct the lives of the common people during the ancient times. The important sources are:

 1.Remains of houses and pottery give an idea of the life of common men.

 2.Some inscriptions and scriptures talk about the relation between monarchs and the subject. It talks about taxes and happiness and unhappiness of the common men.

 3.Changing tools of craftsmen and farmers talk about the lifestyle of the people.

 4.Historians also depend upon folklores to reconstruct the lives of the people during the ancient times.

 Mahajanapadas were states that existed between 6th and 4th BC centuries. Buddhist and Jain texts mention sixteen Mahajanapadas. The name of all these are not uniform in all texts but some names are common and uniform which means they were the powerful ones. These Mahajanapadas are Vajji, Magadha, Kaushal, Kuru, Panchal, and Gandhar.

 The important features of the Mahajanapadas are as follows.

 1.Most of the Mahajanapadas were ruled by powerful kings. However, there were some Mahajanapadas where rule was in the hands of people, we call them republics. In some states the king and the subject had collective control on the economic resources of the state.

 2.Every Mahajanapadas had its own capital. The capital normally would be surrounded by fort. The fortification of the capital was needed for protection and economic resources.

 3.It was around 6th Qentury BC, Brahmins began to compile scripture called “Dharmshastra” which states rules of morality including that of monarch. Herein it was mentioned that the king should be Kshatriya.

 4.The main job of the king was collection of taxes from farmers, traders, craftsmen. They also accepted donations.

 5.It was considered fair to plunder neighbouring countries for riches. 

6.Gradually Mahajanapadas began to have full time army and officials. Soldiers were from the ranks of farmers.

Widespread and deep excavations in the early historic towns have not been possible due to the fact that these towns are still inhabited. In Harappan Civilisation, we have been fortunate enough that excavations have taken place widespread.

 Despite this shortcoming, we have found many artefacts in the historic towns. These throw light on the craftsmanship of those days. There are other evidences too, that throw light on the craftsmanship of those days. The salient features of such evidences are as follows:

 1.From the sights the fine pottery bowls and dishes have been found. They are glossy too and we call them Northern Black Polished Ware. It looks they were used by the rich people.

 2.There have also been evidence of ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels and figurines. There are a wide range of items made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

 3.The donor inscription tells who all lived in towns in terms of professionals and craftsmen. It included washer men, weaver, scribes, carpenters, goldsmith, ironsmith, etc. It is notable in Harappan towns there are no evidences of iron use.

 4.The craftsmen and artisans built their guilds too. They collectively bought raw materials, produced and marketed their products.

• The Owner, master or head of household
• Owner of the resource - land, animal and other thing that belonged to the house hold.

• Megalith was elaborate stone structure in central and south India in first Millennium B.C 
• These were kept on burials 

The demand for taxes increased in the post 600 BC. In order to meet the demand of excessive taxes, without taking lesser produce, forced the farmers to increase productivity. This resulted in the use of new tools and practices of agriculture. The important ones are as follows:

 1.Use of plough: Ploughs became commonplace. They were hardly heard of in the past. The use of ploughs began in the Ganga and Cauvery basins. In places where rain was abundant, the plough was used with iron tip. This increased the paddy production manifold.

 2. Use of spade: Another tool that changed the system of agriculture is spade. Those farmers who lived in the areas of harsh land used spade.

 3. Artificial Irrigation: Apart from rainfall, the farmers now began to look at artificial form of irrigation. This prompted farmers to build wells, ponds, and – canals often collectively. This increased the agricultural production.

 The production increased due to new technology and tools. This created a new strata in the society. In the Buddhist literature, there is a description of small and big farmers. They were called Grihpatis. Similar description is given in the Tamil literature too. The position of village head was often hereditary. In such a situation the ownership of land became very important.

• Special Officer appointed by Ashoka
• Appointed to spread the massage of Dhamma.

The statement of eminent epigraphist D.C. Sirkar has highlighted the importance of inscription as single source of information that touch upon all areas of our life. Following are the main areas we get information about from the inscriptions

 1.Determination of state’s boundaries: the inscriptions were carved in the territories of the kings and even more important is not often close to the borders. This help us find out boundaries of kingdoms and their expansions thereto.

 2.Names of Kings: The names of the kings are mentioned in the inscriptions. The names and titles used by Asoka the Great got revealed through inscriptions only.

 3.Historic events: The important historical events are mentioned in the inscriptions. The best example is how the event of the Kalinga war is mentioned in the inscription and how Asoka takes to Dhamma.

 4. Information about conduct of Kings: Inscriptions describe the conduct and character of the kings quite well. It is through the inscriptions only that we know Asoka worked for the welfare of the masses.

 5. Information about administration: Inscriptions gave information about administration. It is through the inscription. We know that Asoka appointed his son as a Viceroy.

 6. Land settlement and Taxes: inscriptions mention how land were granted or gifted. It also talks about various taxes imposed by the ruler

. There is hardly any area of governance of our life that is not mentioned in the inscriptions. Hence, we are inclined to agree with D.C. Sirkar who says, “There is no aspect of life, culture, activities of Indians that is not reflected in the inscriptions.”

Asokan inscriptions mention all the main features of the administration of the Mauryan Empire. Thus, the features of the administration are evident in the inscriptions of the Asokan age. The important features of the same are as follow:

 1.The capital of the Mauryan Empire was Pataliputra. Apart from the capital there ‘ were four other centres of political power in the empire. They were Taxila, Ujjaini, Tosali and Suvamagiri.

 2.Committee and subcommittees were formed to run the administration and safety of boundaries. Megasthenes has mentioned that there were one committee and six sub-committees. The six subcommittees and their areas of activities are as follows:

 (i)The first sub committee looked after navy.

 (ii)The second sub committee looked after transport and communications.

 (iii)The third sub committee looked after infantry.

 (iv)The fourth sub committee had the responsibility of horses.

 (v)The fifth had the responsibility of chariots.

 (vi)The sixth had the responsibility of elephants.

 3.Strong network of roads and communications were established. It is notable that no large empire can be maintained in the absence of the same.

 4.Asoka made an attempt to keep the empire united by the philosophy of Dhamma. Dhamma are nothing but moral principles that actuated people towards good conducts. Special officers called Dhamma Mahamtras were appointed to propagate Dhamma. In fact Romila Thapar has made it the most important element of the Asokan state’s governing principle.

• Emergence of early states, cities growing use of iron.
• Use of coin. 
• New Religion- Mainly Buddhism, Jainism.

• Language - Prakrit, Aramic, Greek, 
• Script - Brahmi, Greek, Aramaic and Kharosthi 

• Important dynasty of ancient India. 
• First to issue gold coins in India.

The 6^th century BC was considered a turning in the ancient Indian history. These things took place at that period.

1. The rise of early nations. Countries known as Mahajanapadas were formed at this time.

2. The rise of cities and towns. This is the second urbanization process that took place in India.

3.  Increased use of iron. As more and more iron was used, forests were cleared it led to the expansion of agriculture. The arms made of iron increased the importance of warriors.

4. The development of coin system. The use of coins made of metals helped in the development of trade and commerce.

5. The growth of religions like Buddhism and Jainism.

Villagers used many strategies or techniques to increase their agricultural production. They included use of ploughs, transplanting seedlings, weeding and irrigation. From 6^th century BC itself, farmers used ploughs in their fields. In the banks of the Ganges and Kavery, cultivation after ploughing the fields became very popular.

In the fertile silt here and the places where there was plenty of rain, they used iron ploughshares to loosen the earth. Those who lived in the central areas of the subcontinent and on hillsides, they used spades to loosen the earth. It was the best suitable thing for such places. Transplanting of seedlings to increase production was begun in the Gangetic plains.

As a result, the production of paddy increased greatly. But this system was not practised extensively, it was suitable only for places where water was plenty. Transplanting seedlings is not easy work. It needs hard work on the part of the peasants. First, the seeds are germinated and then they are transplanted in the fields where there is standing water.

This system helps the seedlings to survive better and it ensures a good harvest. Another technique was irrigation. People made use of ponds, wells and water reservoirs for this purpose. Irrigation work was carried out by individuals and the community working together. Even kings and nobles took part in such community activities.

Guilds or Shrines were organizations of trades and artisans. It is the Guilds that collected the raw materials and supplied manufactured goods to the markets. They worked like the modern banks, protecting the interests of their members. They also settled quarrels among members, issued their own coins and gave grants to educational institutions. Some Guilds became so strong that even the kings could not ignore them. To make enough different things for the use of the rich people who lived in the citadels, the artisans used iron tools.

Kings, nobles, administrators and the rich lived in the citadel, which was protected by fortresses. At these abodes of the elite, a lot of remains of various kinds of artefacts have been found. The most important of them are the NBPW, short form for Northern Black Polished Ware. They are highly polished black clay pots and saucers. They are notable for their expertise in their making. They must have been used by the rich. Different ornaments made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, glass and clay were found here. There were also plenty of tools, weapons, pots and pans, statues and decorative pieces.