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South Indian expedition of Allauddin: Allauddin Khilji was the first muslim ruler to attempt to the conquest of south India. He deputed his able general Malik Kafur to conquer south India. His ambition was to conquer the enormous wealth of south India and that was the reason for his southern campaign.

1. Expedition to Devagiri (1306-1307 C.E.): Ramachandradeva was the King of Devagiri, who had given shelter to King Kamadeva – II of Gujarat and his daughter Devaladevi. He had also not paid the annual tribute to the Sultan for three years. For these reasons, Malik Kafur raided Devagiri, defeated Ramachandradeva, captured Devaladevi and collected immense booty in 1307 C.E. Devaladevi was married to Khizer Khan, sonof Allauddin.

2. Conquest of Warangal (1309 C.E): In 1309 C.E., Malik Kafur marched through (via) Devagiri, secured the help of Ramachandradeva and attacked Warangal. Pratapa Rudradeva, the ruler of Warangal put up a stiff resistance. However, he was defeated and had to surrender a lot ofwealth which was carried away to Delhi by Malik Kafur. The Ruler of Warangal had to accept Delhi Sultan’s sovereignty.

3. Expedition to Iloysalas in 1310 C.E : Malik Kafur attacked Dwarasamudra (Halebeedu) when Veera Ballala – III was away from the capital and was busy interfering in the Chola politics. Malik Kafur occupied Dwarasamudra and plundered the rich temples in the surrounding areas and looted gold, silver, pearls, diamonds and jewels. Ballala – III was forced to plead for peace and he also accepted the sovereignty of Allauddin Khilji.

4. Conquest of Madhurai (1311 C.E.): The forces of Delhi under Malik Kafur attacked the capital of the Pandya Kings (Madhurai) and plundered the city. Civil war arose between Sundarapandya and Veerapandya. Malik Kafur razed down the famous temple at Ramcshwara. All the wealth looted in south India was transported to Delhi on a large herd of elephants.

Malik Kafur was the commader (General) of Allauddin Khilji.

Lane Poole remarked, that Daulatabad remained a monument of misdirected energy.

1. Devagiri occupied a central location in India, and it was nearly equidistant from Delhi and other important cities in his Empire. 

2. He wanted his capital to be secure from the mongol invasions.

Administrative reforms (experiments) of Mohammad-bin Tughalak: In 1325 CE Prince Jaunakhan, son of Ghiyasuddin (founder) ascended the throne with the title Mohammed- bin Tughalak. He was an outstanding ruler of the Tughalak dynasty. 

He is known for his military, economic and administrative experiments.

1. Register of the land revenue: Main objective of this experiment was to introduce the universal land taxation throughout the Empire. He created an agricultural department to regularise the land revenue registers.

2. Tax increase in Doab area: The area between the rivers Ganga and Yamuna (doab) was the most fertile land of the Empire and capable of yielding a large revenue to the state. Mohammad-bin Tughalak decided to increase the taxes for that area only. But, he enforced the new tax at the time of a famine. People were hard hit by the burden of taxation. Revenue collection was also very strict. When the farmers were unable to pay, this measure made him extremely unpopular. He tried to make amends later, but it was too late. The scheme failed through mismanagement and corruption.

3. Transfer of the capital in 1327 CE: Mahammad-bin-Tughalak decided to transfer his capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad). 

His main objectives were:

(1) (Devagiri) occupied a central location in India and it was nearly equidistant (700 miles) from Delhi, Gujarath, Telangana and other places of his Empire.

(2) He wanted to safeguard his capital from the Mongol invasions. He beautified Devagiri and made arrangements to provide all basic amenities, but he blundered while implementing his ideas. He transported the whole population of Delhi to his new capital. Ibn Batuta says that even a blind man and a cripple who were unwilling to move, were dragged to the new capital. Reasons for the shifting of the capital were veiy practical, but the method . was impractical. The entire population of Delhi was made to march to Daulatabad.

The tiresome journey passing through dense forest, heavy rains, diseases, attacks by decoits, hunger, mental agony etc resulted in death and sufferings of many. The Sultan finally realising the folly of this plan, reshifted the court back to Delhi and ordered a return march of the people. The entire episode made him unpopular. According to Leen Pool – Daulatabad was a ‘Monument of misdirected energy’. This scheme failed on account of the Sultan’s faulty method of implementing it.

4. Token currency circulation in 1329 CE : Mohammed-binTughalak carried out experiments on coinage and currency because maintaining a large army, relief given to farmers due to the Doab famine, transfer exercise of the capital, his unsuccessful expeditions, scarcity of silver etc., caused much loss to the treasury. Hence, to increase the amount of currency, the Sultan issued token coins of copper and brass tanka whose value was equivalent to gold and silver coins. Minting of the copper coins was not retained as the monopoly of the Government. Thornes described him as ‘The Prince of Moncyers’ and a currency expert.

The currency experiment was a miserable failure and the causes for its failure were:

• People could not grasp its real significance 
• Sultan did not take the precautionary measure of minting of coins to be the monopoly of the state. Almost every household turned into a mint and he failed to take precaution against the glut of counterfeit coins. 
• Foreign merchants refused to accept the copper coins, because gold coins were used as a standard unit of exchange. 
• People paid their taxes in their own copper coins and hoarded gold and silver and as a result, treasury was filled with counterfeit coins.

Due to the above causes, trade was seriously affected and Sultan realised his folly and withdrew the new copper coins in 1333-34 CE. He announced that the copper coins would be redeemed with gold and silver coins. People exchanged their copper coins with gold and silver coins and the treasury became completely depleted.

Mohammad-bin-Tughalak was an extraordinary personality and it is difficult to understand his character and determine his place in history. He lacked practical judgement and common sense. He evolved an idealistic approach by trying to put his theoretical experiments into practice without any forethought about the consequences. According to scholars, he was ‘a mixture of opposites’. Dr. Eshwari prasad remarks that ‘Mohammad appears to be an amazing compound of contradiction’. He possessed sound knowledge, but his policies though well-meant, were ill planned and badly executed.

Administrative experiments of Mohammad -bin-Thghalak:

1. Tax increase in Doab area: The area between the Ganga and Yamuna (Doab) rivers being a very fertile land of the Empire and capable of yielding a large revenue to the state, Mohammad – bin – Tughalak decided to increase the taxes there. But he en forced the tax raise at the time of a famine. People were hard hit by the burden of additional taxation. Revenue collection was also strict, which the farmers were unable to pay. This measure made him extremely unpopular. He tried to make amends later, but it was too late. The scheme failed through mismanagement and corruption.

2. Transfer of capital in 1327 C.E.: Mohammad-bin-Tughalak decided to transfer his capital from Delhi to Devagiri (Daulatabad). His main objective was to safeguard his capital from the Mongol invasions. Also, Devagiri occupied a central position in India and it was equidistant to Delhi and the other important cities of his Kingdom. He desired to shift the entire Delhi population along with his court. Barani says that “Not a cat ora dog was left”. Causes for the shifting of the capital were very practical, but the method was impractical. The entire population of Delhi was made to march to Daulatabad.

The tiresome journey passing through the dense forest, heavy rains, diseases, attacks by dacoits, hunger, mental agony etc., resulted in death and sufferings of many. The Sultan having, at last, realised his folly, reshifted the court back to Delhi and ordered a return march of the people. The entire incident made him unpopular. According to Leen P( ol, operation – Daulatabad of was a “Monument of misdirected energy”.*This scheme also failed on account of the Sultan’s unplanned method of forcing it on his people.

3. Circulation of token currency in 1329 C.E.: Mohammad – bin – Tughalak carried out experiments on coinage and currency, because maintaining a large army, relief to the Doab people famine, transfer of the capital, his unsuccessful expeditions, scarcity of Silver etc., caused much loss to the treasury. Hence, to increase the amount of currency in circulation, the Sultan issued token coins of copper and brass. Tanka was the token currency and its value was made equivalent to gold and silver coins. Minting of the copper coins was not retained as a monopoly of the Government.

Thornes described him as the ‘Prince of Moneycrs’ and a currency expert. The Sultan did not take precautionary measures to minting of the coins. People started minting their own coins. Hence, the Empire was flooded with thousands of counterfeit copper coins. People paid their taxes with these counterfeit coins. Copper coins lost their value as a medium of exchange. Trade was seriously affected and Sultan realized his error in judgment and withdrew the new copper coins in 1333-34 C.E. He announced that the copper coins would be redeemed with gold and silver coins. When everybody was there to exchange their copper coins with silver and gold coins, the treasury became empty.

Mohamnad – bin-Tughalak was an extraordinary personality and it is difficult to understand his character and determine his place in history. Pie lacked practical judgement and common sense. He evolved an idealistic approach by trying to put his theoretical experiments into practice, without any forethought about the consequences. According to scholars, he was a ‘mixture of opposites’. Dr. Eshwari Prasad remarks that “Mohammad appears to be an amazing compound of contradictions”. He possessed sound knowledge, but his policies though well-meant, were ill-planned and badly executed.

Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Diwan-i-Khas, and Diwan-i-Am.

Token currency (Copper and Brass token currency) in 1329 to 1332 C.E.

Allauddin Khilji was the first to introduce land survey and settlement.

Mohammad-bin-Tughalak was the famous Sultan.

Varaha (pig) was the royal emblem of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Five Sultan dynasties ruled Delhi. They were 

1. The Slave dynasty 

2. The Khilji dynasty 

3. The Tughalak dynasty 

4. The Sayyid Dynasty 

5. The Lodhi dynasty.

Shivappa Nayaka was a famous Ruler of the Keladi dynasty. He was famous for his Land Revenue settlement system called’Shistu’.

1) Sangama dynasty 

2) Saluva dynasty 

3) Tuluva dynasty and 

4) Aravidu Dynasty, ruled the Vijayanagara Empire.

Shah Jahan built the Red Fort at Delhi.

Akbar built a Red Fort at Agra.

The decisive battle of Talikote was fought in 1565 C.E. between the Vijayanagara (Aliya Ramaraya) Rulers and the combined forces of Shahi Kingdoms on the Banks of river Krishna.

Causes for the Battle : 

1. Supremacy over the Doab region: The fertile doab area between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra became a bone of contention between the two powers and hence responsible for that battle. 

2. Religious difference: The religious and cultural differences between the Hindu Vijayanagara and the Muslim Shahi Kingdoms was one of the causes for the battle.

3. Foreign policy of Aliya Ramaraya: Aliya Ramraya interfered in the internal disputes of the Shahis. He followed the policy of divide and rule with the Shahis of Bijapura and Ahmadnagar. The Shahis forgot their enmity and united through various alliances. The Sultans of the Deccan (Bijapura, Ahmadhagar, Golkonda, Bidar) realized that Ramaraya’s power had increased immensely due to the lack of unity among themselves. They decided to sink their differences and unite in the name of the religion against the Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagara.

4. Immediate Cause: Ali Adil Shah of Bijapura demanded the return of Raichur. But Ramaraya refused and asked the Sultan to fight and win it in the battle field. This was the immediate cause for the battle. Course of the battle: Bahamani Sultans set aside their differences and organized a confederacy against Vijayanagara. The combined forces of Bidar. Bijapura, Ahamadnagar and Golkonda marched and crossed the river Krishna and camped at a place between the villages Rakkasagi and Tangadagi. Aliya Ramaraya decided to meet this challenge with all his might. Ramaraya personally led the army with his two brothers.

The battle took place on 23^rd January 1565 C.E. In the beginning Vijayanagara forces gained upper hand. But during the course of the battle, Ramaraya was captured by the Shahi soldiers and beheaded and his head was paraded in the battle field. This created panic among the Vijayanagara soldiers. They ran away from the battle field. The Shahis won the battle. Venkatadri and Tirumala hurriedly went back to Vijayanagara, took as much wealth as they can carry and fled to Penugonda. This debacle led to the disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Results of the battle : 

1. Vijayanagara Empire lost its glory. The successful Shahi army looted the city of Vijayanagara. 

2. Aravidu dynasty continued under the name of Vijayanagara with its new capital at Penugonda in Andhra Pradesh.

3. The Golkonda and Bijapur Sultans captured the northen territories. The feudatories of Vijayanagara like Nayakas and Palegars proclaimed themselves independent. This led to the disintegration of the Vijayanagara Empire. 

4. The destruction of the capital city and decline of the Vijayanagara Empire adversely affected the Portuguese trade in India.

Obavva was the brave Lady, who protected the Fort of Chitradurga by killing the soldiers of HyderAli.

Obavva, heroically protected Chitradurga fort from Hyder Ali.

Madakari Nayaka- V (1754-1779 C.E.) built the Chitradurga Fort.

Vira Ballala – III was the HoysalaKing, when Malik Kafur invaded Deccan in 1310 C.E.

Dante wrote the book‘Divine Comedy’.

In the European Feudal system, Kings / Greater Lords granted lands to Vassals who had to swear fidelity and loyalty of service to the Lords. These lands were called as fiefs.

Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Peter Abelard, and St. Thomas Aquinas were some of the major intellectuals.

Oxford and Cambridge in England, Bologna, and Naples in Italy and Paris and Montpellier in France were some of the Universities that came into existence in Medieval Europe.

The Cholas system of administration was highly organised and efficient, the king as the pivot of all administration. There was central government, provincial government and local self-government including ‘ur’ – assembly of normal villages, ‘ Sabha’- assembly of Brahmins and ‘nagaram’ – the assembly of merchants. All this well distributed and managed system of administration became strong and effective.

Rani Durgavati was the ruler of Gondwana.

Din-e-Ilahi was the religion introduced by Akbar in 1581 C.E.

In 1576, the battle of Ilaldighat took place between Akbar and Rana Pratap Singh (Ruler of Me war).

City-States like Venice and Genoa were two Trade Centres of Medieval Europe.

Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were the two taxes collected by Shivaji.

Allaud-din-Hasan Gangu Bahaman Shah – on 3rd August 1347 C.E.

Mulla Nusrati and Feristha were two famous historians of the Adil Shahi period.

Literature: The Adil Shahis of Bijapur encouraged many scholars and poets in their courts. Arabic, Persian, and Deccani Urdu languages and literature developed. Ibrahim Adil Shah-II was an eminent scholar who wrote the ‘Kitab-i-Navaras’. Scholars like Syed Ahmed Harawi, Maulana Ghiyasuddin, Habibullah and Abdullah were famous. Shah Miranji of Bijapur wrote two poems ‘Khush-Nama and Khush-Naqhz’. The Sufi saints brought about unity among the Hindus and Muslims.

Mulla Nusrati who wrote the historical work called ‘Ali Nama’ and Ferishta who wrote Tarikh – i -Ferishta, a work on Muslim history, were famous historians during the Adil Shahi’s period. Urdu literature benefitted from the writtings of Abdul Mani, Mian Nusrati, Mirjan Marisa and others.

Art and Architecture: The monuments built by the Adil Shahis are in Indo-Islamic style. This is also called Deccani style. The early monuments of Adil Shahi period were simple and elegant. They built several Palaces, Mosques, Tombs and Gateways. Some of the noteworthy Palaces were Ganga Mahal, Sangeet Mahal, Mittar Mahal and Asar Mahal.

Ali Adil Sha (1558-1580) built the famous Jami Masjid at Bijapur. It is noted for seven arches, minarets, huge domes and the big prayer hall.

The Ibrahim Roza (1626 C.E.): consists of twin buildings constructed on a raised platform. One of the buildings’is a Mosque and the other is a tomb. It was built by Ibrahim Adi Shah - II. The interior parts of the tomb are profusely decorated, the wall and pillars have been covered by floral and geometric designs. Inside the Roza, a part of the ceiling hangs without any support. The Roza is renowned for its ‘Hanging Roof’. It is called the ‘Taj Mahal of South India’.

Gol Gumbaz (1629-1656 C.E.): at Bijapur is a world-famous monument. Mohammad Adil Shah built it. The huge central dome measures 144 ft in diameter. At the four corners, it hr.:- octagonal towers rising seven stories high The main attraction of this Gumbaz is its ‘Whispering gallery’. Any sound made in this dome, echoes seven times. It is one of the wonders of the world.

Another incomplecte noteworthy monument in Bijapur is Barakaman foundation which was started by Ali Adil Shah – II. It has a raised platform of 20 ft. It consists of eleven big arches. Bade Kaman, Anand Mahal, Taj Bawadi, Chand Bawadi etc are some of the other important monuments.

Mahmud Gawan was the Prime Minister of Mohammad Shah – III. He built the Madarasa at Bidar in 1472 C.E.

Shah Jahan built it at Agra.

Akbar Nama,Ain-i-Akbari.

Raj a Todarmal was the famous revenue minister of Akbar. lie was famous for implementing the revenue system called Bandobust.

Bijapur was the capital of the Adil Shah is.

Jama Masjid at Gulbarga (Ahsanabad) was the earliest Mosque built by (Mohammad Shah I) the Bahamani Sultans, in 1367 C.E.

Bidar was made the second capital of the Bahamani Kingdom, in 1422 C.E.

Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529 C.E.):Krishnadevaraya of the Tuluva dynasty was the greatest Ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire. He was the son of Tuluva Narasanayaka and Nagaladevi He came to the throne in 1509 C.E. The glory and prestige of the Kingdom reached its zenith during the rule of Krishnadevaraya. He got a good training under his Prime minister’ Timmarasa whom he called as Appaji.

Military achievements of Krishnadevaraya :

1. The war of 1510 C.E.: Krishnadevaraya had to fight a war against Mohammed Shah of Bidar and Yusuf Adil Shah of Bijapur whose combined army attacked Vijayanagara. A battle took place in 1510 C.E. near Doni, in which the Muslim army was routed and it ran away from the battle field. Krishnadevaraya pursued the enemy forces up to Govilkonda and once again defeated them. He then occupied the Fort of Raichur and the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab area.

2. Siege of Unimatturu-1513 C.E.: Krishnadevaraya marched against the rebellious chief, Gangaraja of Ummatturu. Gangaraja was defeated and the forts of Shivanasainudra and Srirangapattana were captured. Krishnadevaraya created a new province with its head quarters at Srirangapattana.

3. Kalinga (Orissa) expedition -1513-1518 C.E.: Krishnadevaraya took an expedition to Kalinga to defeat the Gajapalhi Ruler, Prataparudra, which was achieved in stages. Udayagiri Fort was captured first. Next, he signed the Fort of Kondavidu and del bated the Reddies. The administration of the Krishna region of Andhra was entrusted to Salva Thimma. Then he captured the Forts of Vijayawada and Kondapalli. Later, the rest of the Telangana region came under his rule. When the Vijayanagara army reached Cuttack, the capital of the Gajapathis, King Prataparudradcva capitulated and settled for peace in 1518 C.E.

4. Battle or Raichur-1520 C. E.: When Krishnadevaraya was busily engage. in his Orissa campaign, Sultan Ismail Adil Shah of Bijapur recaptured the fort of Raichur. In 1520, Krishnadevaraya marched against the Sultan, defeated him and took back the Fort of Raichur. In this battle, the Portuguese musketeers helped the Vijayanagara army.

5. Captured the Fort of Gulbarga -1523: Krishnadevaraya went as far as Bijapura, From here, he went to Gulbarga and defeated Amir Barid. Then he went upto Bidar and released the Bahamani Sultan, who had been imprisoned by his own subordinates and placed him on the throne of Gulbarga and took the title ‘Yavanarajya Pralishtapanacharya’.

6. Relation with the Portuguese: Krishnadevaraya maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese at Goa. He did not give help to Albuquerque to conquer Goa from the Bijapur Sultan in 1510 C.E. lie gave permission to the Portuguese to build Fort at Bhatkal. Durate Barbosa (1514-1515 C.E.) and Domingo Paes (1520 C.E.) is and the court of Krishnadevaraya. They have given information about the Vijayanaga i trade and the personality of Krishnadevaraya.

7. Peace in Ceylon: There was political instability in Ceylon (Srilanka) There wen revolts against King Vijayabahu. Krishnadevaraya intervened in its political affairs and peace was established. Bhuvanaikyabahu, the son of Vijayabahu was brought to power.

8. Extend of his Empirer The Empire extended from river Krishna and Godavari in the North, to Kanya kumari in the South and from the Arabian Sea in the West to the way of Bengal in the East.

Patronage to Literature : Krishnadevaraya was not only a great Ruler but also a agreat scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. He wrote ‘Amukta Malyada’ in Telugu, Jambavathi Kalyanam Ushaparinayam, Madalasa Charithe and Rasamanjari in Sanskrit. He patronized eights Telugu poets popularly called as the ‘Ashtadiggajas’. He honoured the great scholar vyasateertha and Allasani Peddanna was conferred with the title ‘AndraKavi Pitamaha’. Krishnadevaraya is often described as ‘Andhra Bhoja’.

He abolished the marriage tax. In memory of his mother Nagaladevi, he built a new city called Nagalapura and he built Purandara Mantapa at Hampi. He built many tanks and canals for both drinking water and irrigation purposes. He was a devotee of Lord Venkateshwara of Tirupati. He had many titles like Kannadarajya Ramaramana, Kavipungava, Karnatakandhrabhoja, Yavanarajya Pratishthapanacharya etc., The last days of Krishnadevaraya were unhappy. Due to his only son Tirumala’s death under mysterious circumstances in 1524 C. E., Krishnadevaraya was much grieved and died in 1529 C.E.

Allaud-din-Hasan Gangu Bahaman Shah.

Babur was the founder of the Mughal dynasty.

Ibrahim Adil-Shah-II.

Zafar Khan was the former name of Hasan Gangu Bahaman Shah.

Mahmud Gawan was bom in 1411 C.E., at Gawan in Persia.

Mahmud Gawan was the Prime Minister of Mohammad Shah-III.

RajaTodarmal was the famous revenue minister of Akbar.

Gulbadan Begum wrote the book Humayun Nama.