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(c) DNA fingerprints of two individual are not the same

3 Billion numbers of nucleotides pairs found in human.

(a) Sum total of a haploid set of chromosome & extra chromosomal material of the cell

(c) From cloning

It was developed by Teruhiko Wakayama and Ryuzo Vanagimachi at University of Hawaii (1998). It is used to produce an animal clone.

The probe is a fragment of DNA or RNA of variable length which can be radioactively or fluorescently labelled.

The factors which produce mutations are called mutagens.

Failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis – I, failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis – II is called non-disjunction.

The stage through Polyploidy change in a group of chromosomes numbers occurs is called.

The genetic codes are ambiguity in nature. It means a particular amino acid can be coded by more than one codons. It was explained by Crick who gives Wobble hypothesis. According to this theory, if the amino acid is coded by more than one code than initial two nucleotides of the codon are same only 3rd nitrogenous base are different.

Gene Cloning:

• The production of a large population of a DNA fragment in pure form is called as gene cloning.
• It involves the formation of recombinant DNA and its introduction into the mother bacterial cell.
• The recombinant DNA is formed by combining DNAs from two different organisms.
• This process is called genetic engineering. A DNA fragment of one organism (called as Passenger DNA) is transferred into another organism by combining it with another DNA(called as Vehicle DNA).
• Normally plasmid or bacteriophage DNA is used as Vehicle DNA. Both the passenger and vehicle DNA are cleaved by using restriction endonuclease enzyme and they are mixed under suitable conditions.
• Their complementary sticky ends pair and their ends are sealed by ligase enzyme. The resulting DNA is called recombinant DNA.
• The recombinant DNA is added to the culture containing growing host bacteria.
• These bacteria take the recombinant DNA along with the nutrients.
• This DNA replicates when the bacteria divide and produce a large clone of recombinant DNA.

Euploidy or Polyploidy:
The total set of a number of chromosomes in cell or organism is called monoploidy. The gaining of one or more complete sets of chromosomes is called euploidy. 

This can be of two types –

• Autopolyploidy
• Allopolyploidy

Genome:

• It is a scientific project which was aimed to study the complete sequence of the human genome. Genes are the key which decides how we appear and work. Moreover, the genes indicate our history and future.
• The DNA sequence is different in two individuals at a certain location, this promotes the scientists to completely sequence a human genome.
• The haploid set of chromosomes in a cell is called a Genome.

Sometimes, some genes are present more than once in a chromosome i.e. one, segment repeats twice in a chromosome. It is called duplication.

Some time mismatch combination of nitrogenous bases occurs in daughter DNA. If this change occurs at gene level it is known as Gene Mutation.

(b) Permanent and Hereditary change in the DNA

(a) 3 nucleotide bases, 64 codons

(c) Transition