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When we speak to visitors or students about our medieval manuscripts, we frequently find ourselves spending a significant amount of time talking about how such books were created.  We discuss the ways that scribes worked and artists painted, and quite often we will then be asked just how it is that we can know such details.  There are, of course, medieval manuals for craftspeople that still exist, but often we can find clues in the manuscripts themselves.  Writing was a skill that was hard-won and greatly valued, and many authors and scribes were memorialised by their artisan brethren.  We’ll devote an upcoming post to an examination of these artists themselves, but today will concentrate on images of scribes at work. 


Full-page miniature of St Dunstan at work, from Smaragdus of St Mihiel’s Expositio in Reglam S Benedicti, England (Canterbury), c. 1170 – c. 1180, Royal MS 10 A XIII, f. 2v

A spectacular leading example is that of St Dunstan, writing his commentary on the Rule of St Benedict.  Dunstan is shown in his bishop’s garb, seated in a spectacular if somewhat uncomfortable-looking CHAIR.  On the stand before him is a manuscript, bound in a chemise fabric.  The opening lines of Dunstan’s text are already written in blue and red ink, and the saint is in the process of adding to them with ink from the pot before him.  In his right hand he holds a sharpened quill, while in the left he is wielding a knife.  This knife was a common tool, used to sharpen quills, scrape away scribal mistakes, and even hold the parchment in place while the author was writing.


Detail of a miniature of a hermit at work on a manuscript, from the Estoire del Saint Graal, France (Saint-Omer or Tournai?), c. 1315 – 1325, Royal MS 14 E III, f. 6v

A knife is almost ubiquitous in medieval scribal scenes.  It can be seen employed in the image above, in which a more modest scriptorium is on display.  This miniature, from a copy of the Estoire del Saint Graal that once belonged to Charles V of France, shows a habited hermit in the act of writing at his desk; his quill dipped into the black ink that rests at his side and his knife steadying the page.  This scribe is working on a not-yet bound folio, which has been ruled with lines and is being held in place by a set of red weights.  Interestingly, we can see that rather than writing an original work, he is copying an older text, which rests on a stand above him; he has so far nearly completed the opening word.


Detail of a miniature of Guillaume de Lorris or JEAN de Meun at work writing the text, from the Roman de la Rose, Netherlands (Bruges), c. 1490 – c. 1500, Harley MS 4425, f. 133r

ONE of our favourites (of course) is the miniature above, which you hopefully are all already familiar with.  In this scene, the author of the Roman de la Rose is seated at an elaborate workbench with his manuscript before him.  Interestingly, it appears to be a finished copy, bound with gilded edges, which is fairly unusual in these sorts of depictions.  Our author is holding a quill in his hand as he turns towards the viewer, and delightfully appears to have another quill tucked up into his cap.  On the shelf below him are other bound books, some scrolls, and a glass of water, while on his desk we can see two pots of ink, one black, and one red – he may be at work rubricating (marking in red lettering) with the latter ink.  Above the desk is what looks like a sheaf of papers hanging from a hook, although exactly what that is has been a subject of some debate – please do let us know your thoughts!


Full-page miniature of Donatus writing his grammar, from Sedulius Scotus’ Expositio super primam edicionem Donati grammatici, Germany, 2nd half of the 12th century, Arundel MS 43, f. 80v

Scribes didn’t always labour on their own, however.  A 12th century copy of Donatus’ Grammar is prefaced with a miniature of the scholar himself, hard at work.  He is surrounded by LATER inscriptions (and was apparently gifted by this inscriber with an odd variety of full-head crown), but he is also possessed of a small-scale assistant.  This tonsured man, LABELLED ‘Heinre’(?) is holding an ink horn, which he offers to Donatus.

Before the British rule, Indian transport and communication system was backward in comparison to the Western countries. There were no roads and no railway to connect distance places. No telegraph system ever existed.Roads:

The English took upon the projects for finding cheap and easy means of transport both on LAND and in water. STEPS were taken to improve the condition of the existing roads. Some of the important cities, ports and, markets were connected by roads. But Lord William Bethink first initiated the project to connect Calcutta (Kolkata) with the frontier provinces of India. By that time Kolkata was the capital of the British Empire.

Works on this project started in 1839 to connect Kolkata with Delhi and it known as the Grand Trunk Road. Later this road was extended up to Lahore and Peshawar. To supervise and coordinate the construction works of roads, bridges, canals etc. Lord Dalhousie set upon the PUBLIC Works Department under a Chief Engineer.

Water Ways:

Water ways were more important for commercial purposes. Navigation canals were dug. Steamships and steam boats were introduced in the rivers, this means of transport proved cheaper and easier both for the merchants and people.

Railways:

However, introduction of railways was the milestone in the Indian transport system. The English observed the benefits of railways as the best means for distribution of finished goods and supply of raw materials.

The English realized that only a railway net work could meet their colonial needs. Therefore, some Englishmen THOUGHT of introducing railways in India. It was Rowland Macdonald Stephenson who argued that railways would be the easy and cheap means of transport for British industrial goods to the markets of interior India and for the raw materials to the sea-ports.Postal System:

No less important was the modernization of postal system in India by the British. Indian postal system was in deplorable condition. Posts were sent by horses and by postmen. This system used to take very long time to carry letters or news from one place to another. In addition, there was delay for various other reasons.Telegraph:

Dalhousie decided to introduce the electric telegraph in India as quick and better communication media.

He had the benefits of this by system in minds as found in Europe and North America. Partly he was prompted by the administrative need of establishing direct communication links between the Central Government at Kolkata and the provincial capitals. Further, as an imperialist, partly he felt the need of quick and constant touch with the military headquarters.

He promptly took actions in this direction and found an able engineer O' Shaughnessy to convert the plan into reality. His untiring efforts resulted in the installation of experimental telegraph lines. In 1852 three main trunk lines were taken up for communication network. First line linked Kolkata with Peshawar through Banaras, Allahabad, Agra, Ambla and Lahore. The second line connected Kolkata with Mumbai (Bombay). The third line linked Chennai (Madras) with Mumbai through Bangalore, Poona and Hyderabad. The telegraph system worked so efficiently that it BECAME the point of attack for the revolutionaries during the Revolt of 1857Means of transport and communication had tremendous effect both on the Government of India and on the people. It benefited all in many ways. Opening of cheap and easy transport system profited the British merchants and capitalists the most.

It accelerated the pace of colonialism and economic exploitation of India. Within a short period, India was converted into a market for the British machine-products and a source of raw materials for the British industries.

Economy of Britain flourished at the cost of Indian economy. The Government of India succeeded in suppressing all internal resistances and in defending the empire against all external aggressions. It added efficiency and greater mobility to the army and military operations, hereafter, became easier and successful. It brought safety and stability for the British Empire in India.

A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, INFLATION, crop failure, population IMBALANCE, or government policies. ... AGRICULTURAL conditionshave been fluctuating more and more due to VARIATIONS in weather, and the DISTRIBUTION of food has been affected by conflict.

Your answer is INDIKA it is a SUBSTANCE which was used as CIGARETTE in those DAYS
It was forced to be grown BRITISHERS

Demerits (Reasons for failure):

• Complete responsibility on Zamindars: In case a Zamindar could not pay the fixed revenue amount, the loss was compensated by selling a PORTION of the Zamindar's land.

• CLASS distinction: It created a class distinction in the villages with two classes: Zamindars and tenants.

• Oppressed peasants: Peasants were left entirely at the mercy of landlords. This was a grave mistake on the part of Cornwallis as the cultivators were deprived of the ownership of the land.

• High revenue demand: The fixed revenue demand was high as the Government was not supposed to take its share in any increase of revenue.

• Zamindars' authority diminished: The troops of the Zamindars were dispersed and their custom duties were abolished. The Zamindars started losing their power whereas the collectorate became an ALTERNATIVE center of power.

Emergence of Jotedars: By the end of 18th century Jotedars had acquired a vast area of land by BUYING the auctioned lands of Zamindars. So Zamindars started losing power.

Facts and Figures

- In Burdwan, there were around 30,000 pending cases related to rent payment in 1798.

- Tejchand was the Raja of Burdwan when the PERMANENT Settlement was imposed.

The Battle of Plassey was a decisive VICTORY of the British East INDIA Company over the NAWAB of Bengal and his French ALLIES on 23 JUNE 1757. The battle consolidated

The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom, a part of British Armed .... At that time there was only ONE ENGLISH regiment of dragoons, and the SCOTS Greys ...

Chief of the GENERAL Staff: General Sir Nicholas Carter KCB CBE DSO

It is ENGLISH EAST INDIA Company=EEIC

I HOPE it's HELP you.

Rajasauras was the dinasour that was FOUN in INDIA

Argentinasarous huinculensis

By the end of the 19th century many Indians began feeling that to instill a sense of pride in the nation Indian history had to be thought about differently.

The British SAW Indians as backward and primitive, incapable of governing themselves.

In response, Indians began looking into the past to discover India's great achievements. They WROTE about the glorious developments in ANCIENT times when ART and ARCHITECTURE, science and mathematics, religion and culture, law and philosophy, crafts and trade had flourished.

It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by UN BODIES for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the Security Council, the General ASSEMBLY. this is for uno

The Creation of Taliban goes back to 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. In 1973, The Soviet Union brought their soldiers into Afghanistan claiming to rebuild the crushing ECONOMY. this is 2 answer


Iran and Syria are virtually sustaining the proxy war against Israel. For peace to return to West Asia, Iran and Syria MUST recognise Israel, as Jordan and Egypt have done.this is 1 answer

For NCERT notes you can CHECK the STUDY rankers APP

Answer:

The TWO categories into which Maasai society was divided were:

• ELDERS: They formed the ruling GROUP and met in periodic councils to decide on the affairs of the community and settle disputes.

• Warriors: They consisted of YOUNGER people, mainly RESPONSIBLE for the protection of the tribe. They defended the community and organised cattle raids.

The OLD NAME of LUCKNOW is "Lakhanpur"....

Hello friend this is your answer




(a) A group of stars forming VARIOUS patterns in called a constellation.

(B) A huge system of stars is called a galaxy.

(c) The Moon is the closest celestial body to our Earth.

(d) Earth is the third NEAREST planet to the sun.

(e) Planets do not have their own HEAT and light.

Hope it helps

Intellectuals in Hanoi opened the FREE SCHOOL of Tonkin in 1907, which soon BECAME a centre of anti-French AGITATION and consequently was SUPPRESSED after a few months

I GUESS
.......... RABINDRANATH TAGORE

Hello Friend...

__________________
__________________

The answer of U R QUESTION is...

"Do Cooper is a media epithet popular refer to an UNIDENTIFIED man ..."

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__________________

Thank you......

2. A) cavalry
B) The rural areas had a large number of ARMED peasantsand the LOCAL zamindars often SUPPLIED the Mughals with Paidal or foot soldiers.


Hope it HELPS..!

The Sepoy MUTINY and The FIRST WAR of Independence are the same. It is ALSO called The Revolt of 1857.

If you mean how was LIFE POSSIBLE then think that we are living and after thousands of years from now they will have same question but the answer was life existed

If you mean how did they live thousands of years ago then I DONT KNOW EXACTLY best is to google

Globalization is the term used for producing goods and EXCHANGING of SERVICES, LABOURS and goods ACROSS countries on a INTERNATIONAL basis

The people of bastar rebelled in 1910 against the british COLONIAL POWER because for long the villagers had been suffering DUE to increased land rents, demand for free labour and GOODS by colonial officals .this sitution was WORSENED by terrible

Only the selected TEXT was PRINTED as they show nazi PARTY as superior

I HOPE this ANSWER will HELP you

It is RELATED to the Hakra PHASE, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600 BCE,Harappan 2), named after a SITE in NORTHERN Sindh, Pakistan, near Mohenjo-daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to the 3rd MILLENNIUM BCE.

Here is your answer dear _______

♣ ♣ ♣ Humayun was the son of Babur and father of Akbar. He had FOUR brothers: Kamran, Hindal, Aksari and Humayun. He became the emperor in 1530 after the assassination of Babur and reign till 1540. He fought two battles with SHER SHAH SURI and was DEFEATED in the battle of kannauj and chausa. He fed of to the west in Raja Versal Mahal and here he GAVE birth to Akbar the great. He died in 1556 by falling from the stairs of library of mughal empire.He had a tomb!


♠ ♠ ♠ HOPE IT HELPS U!!!
THNX ┬─┬ノ( º _ ºノ)

Archaeology teaches US about the past by showing us the remains of past organisms and by studying them you can see how certain things were such as evolution FOOD and other things like their AGE
It helps us build a picture about a specific civilization; it tells us how those people lived, what they ate, who they traded with; what things they liked, if they were warriors or peaceful, cultivated people, if their civilization ended in war, fire, pillage or because of a natural CATASTROPHE, or they MYSTERIOUSLY abandoned their town/village, if they were healthy, at what age did they generally die, what they believed in, etc.

This PERSON is VASCO DA GAMA.

Abu'l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad AKBAR, popularly known as Akbar I IPA, was the third Mughal EMPEROR, who reigned from 1556 to 1605.Wikipedia

Born: 15 October 1542, Umerkot, Pakistan

Died: 27 October 1605, Fatehpur Sikri

Full name: Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar I

Height: 1.7 m

Spouse: Mariam-uz-Zamani (m. 1562–1605), SALIMA Sultan BEGUM (m. 1561–1605), MORE

Parents: Humayun, Hamida BANU Begum
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The 3RD estate were benefited from the french REVOLUTION. The NOBILITY, CLERGY and the EMPIRE had to relinquish the power. The section of society which were disappointed were the 1st and 2nd estate.

S ,the OFFICE of PESHWAS was hereditary


so the STATEMENT is TRUE

1.Meat and BREAD were rationed
2.the use of more expensive white flour was forbidden.
3.all citizens were required to eat the pain d' alit ( equality bread ) .
4. instead of monsieur and MADAME all FRENCH men women were henceforth citoyen and citoyenne.
5. churches were shut down and their building CONVERTED into barracks and OFFICES.

Hey...
your answer ☺
1. to civilise them and to make them familiar with MODERN ideas

2. they felt that EDUCATING them would make them respect their ideals

3. Vietnamese would ACCEPT their superiority

4. Vietnamese could work for them.

attached file or this answer MAY help u...
keep SMILING ☺

I think ur ques is about the feature if so 
garbhagriha 
GOPURAM
mandapas 
COURT of savious
the MAIN feature is WHEREVER the sun turns u can see that the gopuram 's shadow don't fall on the ground .