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1. Smooth / non-striated / visceral / involuntary muscles 

2. Cardiac muscles 

3. Skeletal / straited / voluntary muscles.

1. Streaming of protoplasm, peristalsis are internal movements. Walking and running are external movements. 

2. Examples of internal movement: 

Contraction and relaxation heart, inspiration and expiration, contraction of blood vessels, etc. 

3. Examples of external movement: 

Swimming; movement tongue, jaws, snout, tentacles, movement of ear pinna, etc.

Yes, the tickling sensation in muscles can be felt and sometimes it is also accompanied by itching sensation.

The four basic types locomotory movements seen in animals are: 

1. Amoeboid movement: It is performed by pseudopodia, e.g. leucocytes. 

2. Ciliary movement: It is performed by cilia, e.g. ciliated epithelium. In Paramoecium, cilia help in passage of food through cytopharynx.

3. Whirling movement: It is performed by flagella, e.g. sperms. 

4. Muscular movement: It is performed by muscles, with the help of bones and joints.

1. Considering Ragini’s age, she may be undergoing menopause. After menopause, oestrogen level declines resulting in lower bone density. 

2. Osteoporosis:

• In this disorder, bones become porous and hence brittle. It is primarily age related disease and is more common in women than men.
• Osteoporosis may be caused due to decreasing estrogen secretion after menopause, deficiency of vitamin D, low calcium diet, decreased secretion of sex hormones and thyrocalcitonin.

3. As age advances, bone resorption outpaces bone formation. Hence, the bones lose mass and become brittle. More calcium is lost in urine, sweat, etc., than it is gained through diet. Thus, prevention of disease is better than treatment by consuming adequate amount of calcium and exercise at young age.

4. A person with previous hairline fractures is more susceptible to reoccurrence of fractures. Hence, Ragini needs to take her medications and supplements properly, avoid jerky movements and maintain body weight.

Bone, muscle and joint can be compared to the simple machines called levers. Joints act as fulcrum, respective muscle generates the force required to move the bone associated with joint.

On observing Report D, it is clear that the level of uric acid is more than normal, thus the patient must be suffering from gouty arthritis. 

Also, the elevated blood urea nitrogen (BUN) indicates dysfunctional liver and/ or kidneys. It generally occurs due to decrease in GFR, caused by renal disease or obstruction of urinary tract.

Forensic science is an application of science which is used in the matter of criminal determination and civil law. It is generally used in investigation of crimes. Forensic scientists collect, preserve and analyze the evidence during the course of investigation.

1. Cleft palate and cleft lip are the birth defects that occur when a baby’s lip or mouth does develop properly. 

2. Cleft palate happens when the tissue that forms the roof of the mouth does not join together completely during pregnancy.

3. Cleft lip happens when the tissue that makes up the lip does not join completely before birth. This leads to formation of an opening in the upper lip.

Sinuses are the hollow cavities present in the skull. They humidify the air we breathe. 

i. The four types of sinuses present in the skull:

Frontal sinuses: 

They are located above each eye. There are right and left frontal sinuses. 

Maxillary sinuses: 

They are the largest among all sinuses, located just behind the cheekbones near to upper jaws. 

Sphenoid sinuses: 

These are present just behind the nose. 

Ethmoid sinuses: 

These are present between the eyes. ii. 

Functions of skull:

Functions of skull: 

• It protects the brain. 
• It provides sockets for ear, nasal chamber and eyes. 
• Mandible bone of the skull helps in opening and closing of the mouth. 

iii. Sinusitis: 

It is the inflammation of tissue lining the sinuses. Healthy sinuses when get blocked with mucus and germs causing infection which may lead to sinusitis.

Functions of skull: 

• It protects the brain. 
• It provides sockets for ear, nasal chamber and eyes. 
• Mandible bone of the skull helps in opening and closing of the mouth.

Our spinc shows four slight curves which are visible when viewed from the sides.

Thoracic vertebrae can be identified on the basis of centrum, as the centrum of the thoracic vertebrae is heart shaped.

1. The four curvatures in human spine are cervical, lumbar, thoracic and sacral curvatures.

2. The cervical and lumbar curvatures are secondary and convex whereas the thoracic and sacral curvatures are primary and concave.

3. Importance: Curvatures help in maintaining balance in upright position. 

They absorb shocks while walking and also protect the vertebrae from fracture.

1. The bones of vertebral column are supported by the intervertebral discs.

2. These intervertebral discs act as shock absorbers due to which they are constantly compressed.

3. The disc consists of two parts – soft gelatinous inner part (nucleus pulposus) and tough outer ring.

If the ligaments of the intervertebral discs become injured, the pressure developed in the nucleus pulposus protrudes posteriorly or into one of the adjacent vertebrae. This is known as slipped disc.

Knee replacement is done in following cases: 

1. Osteoarthritis: The cartilage in the knee undergoes degradation. It is caused by many factors such as muscle weakness, aging, obesity, etc. 

2. Rheumatoid arthritis: It is characterised by inflammation of the synovial membrane, where it starts secreting excess of synovial fluid in the joint. This fluid exerts extensive pressure on the joint and causes severe pain. 

3. Post-traumatic arthritis: This is caused due to breakage of ligament or cartilage. The breakage can be due to severe injury or accident. It causes severe pain and requires knee replacement. 

4. Procedure: The procedure involves removal of the damaged cartilage or ligament and replaces it with artificial implant made up of either metal, plastic or both. Metal or plastic knee caps are used to cover the knees. The implant is connected to the bone and an artificial knee joint is made between them. 

5. Prevention: Maintaining body weight, exercising regularly, consuming appropriate medications and supplements, etc.

1. Humans and monkeys both have five fingers including thumb, however humans can hold an object in better manner than monkeys because humans have highly developed opposable thumbs. The opposable thumb allows better grip. 

2. The saddle joint in thumb allows free and independent movement to the thumb the carpometacarpellar joint between carpal (trapezium) and metacarpal of thumb makes the thumb opposable. It allows biaxial movements, i.e. flexion – extension and adduction – abduction but not rotation.

1. Warming up before exercise stimulates the production and secretion of synovial fluid which reduces the stress on joints during exercise. 

2. Also, if a joint is immobile for a while, the synovial fluid becomes viscous and as joint movement starts, it becomes less viscous.

3. Warming up increases the blood circulation, loosening the joints and increasing the blood flow. It also prepares the muscles for physical activity and prevents injuries.

1. Tennis elbow is caused due to inflammation of tendon which joins muscles of forearm to the bone of upper arm (humerus). It is known as lateral epicondylitis. 

2. It causes severe pain in the elbow. It occurs due to extensive repetitive movement of hand. This damages the tendon and increases the tenderness of the elbow joint. 

3. This disorder develops not only in athletes but also in other common people whose job involves  extensive movement of hand such as carpenter, painter, plumber, etc.