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will try to understand what they wantthey may have creative thinking as wellthey can have good job as wellfirst we have to understand them

Many several communities live in Bastar such as Maria and Muria Gond, Dhurawas, Bhatras and Halbas. They speak different languages ​​but share common rituals and beliefsPeople of Bastar believe that every village was given its land by the earth.

When the colonial government proposed in the year 1905 two-thirds of the forest reserve, and prohibited the cultivation, hunting and collection of forests, the people of Bastar were very apprehensive.

Even before this, the villagers were suffering from additional land rent and recurring demands of free labor and the goods by the colonial authorities.

Though there was no single leader, even then, a person named Ganda Dhur was the leading name in the revolt which happened after that.In the year 1910, the mango bone, a lump of the earth, chillies and arrows were circulated among the villages. These were known as messages that invited the villagers to rebel against the British.

Every village contributed to the expenses of the rebellion.

The markets were robbed, the houses of the officers and traders, schools and police stations were burned and raided, and the grain was redistributed.

Those who faced the suffering of the villagers were attacked on the methods associated with the colonial state and its oppressive law.

Cheetah is the correct answer

Tides are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon and the Sun, and the rotation of the Earth. Tide tables can be used to find the predicted times and amplitude (or "tidal range") of tides at any given locale.

Types of tides. There are two main tides that are higher or lower than average. They occur twice monthly and are called neap and spring tides. When there is a low tide, the Moon faces the Earth at a right angle to the Sun so the gravitational force of the Moon and Sun work against each other.

Hyder Ali, Haidarālī was the Sultan and de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore in southern India. Born as Sayyid wal Sharif Hyder Ali Khan, he distinguished himself militarily, eventually drawing the attention of Mysore's rulers.

Ans :- Option (a)There's about a seven-day interval between spring tides and neap tides, when the tide's range is at its minimum. Neap tides occur halfway between each new and full moon – at the first quarter and last quarter moon phase – when the sun and moon are at right angles as seen from Earth.

Factors influencing the locations of Iron and steel industries:

Raw material: Mostly large integrated steel plants are located close to source of raw materials, as they use large quantity ofheavy and weight losing raw materials. Eg: Concentration of Iron and steel industry in Chota Nagpur region-Presence of Iron ore in this region. TISCO at Jamshedpur.

Markets:As its heavy & bulky transportation cost is high. Therefore nearness to market is important especially for mini steel plants access to nearby markets is most important in order to minimize transportation cost. Also asmini steel plantsrely on scrap metal they are mostly present in Maharashtra. Visakhapatnam steel plant located near the coast has excellent import-export facility

Labour:Availability ofcheap labouris also important. Eg: Rourkhela plant, Orisa; Bhilai steel plant in Chattisgarh, mostly inChota Nagpurregion

Availability of electricitymostly hydro and water for cooling. Eg: Bokaro steel plant on banks of river Damodar, Visheshwarya steel plant, Kar near river Bhadra.Please like the solution 👍 ✔️

The factors responsible for the concentration of iron and steel industries in and around the ‘Chotanagpur Plateau Region’ are as follows(i) Low cost of iron ore Iron mines are located in the nearby areas. It helps to reduce the transportation cost of iron ore to the industries.

(ii) High grade raw materials in proximity Other bulky raw materials like, coking coal, limestone are also available in proximity.

(iii) Availability of cheap labour From the adjoining areas of Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha cheap labour is available in abundance.

(iv) Dense transport network This region is well connected with roadways and railways that help in the swift movement of raw materials and finished goods to the industry and market areas, respectively.

(v) Port facilities Kolkata is a well developed port that is near to this area.

3. bcoz of presence of favourable climatic conditions such as warm and moist, availability of raw materials, skilled labour and port for importing it

4. public, private,joint and cooperative sectors

Iron Industry and steel industry is called Basic Industry because it act as need for all other Industries...As, Raw Material, Machinery and other needs...Or we can say...Iron and steel industry is known as basic industry as it provides a base to the other industries.It provides raw materials to ship building, transport equipments, machine and tool making industry, Aircraft etc.

Bharat heavy electrical NTPC and many more industries are now a days using iron and steel for the heavy equipment

Iron and SteelIndustry is often calledthebackbone of modern industry. Almost everything we use is either made of iron or steel or has been made with tools and machinery of these metals. Ships, trains, trucks, and autos are made largely of steel

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Thanks

production and distribution of product

(a) Wasteland Rules To the colonial officials, all uncultivated land appeared to be unproductive.Therefore, grazing lands were also considered as wastelands as they produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce.The Colonial Government wanted to bring the grazing lands under cultivation so that they could get revenue and agricultural goods from this land.'Effects of the Wasteland Rules According to Wasteland Rules, the uncultivated lands were taken over and given to select individuals who were granted concessions and encouraged to setde these lands. Therefore, expansion of cultivation inevitably meant the decline of pastures and created problems and hardships for the pastoralists.(b)Forest Acts By the mid-19th century, various Forest Acts were also being enacted in the different provinces of India. Through the Forest Acts, the forests were divided into two categories: Reserved Forests and Protected Forests.Effects of the Forest Acts Pastoralists could no longer remain in an area even if forage was available. They could enter only by getting a permit for entry.If they overstayed the specified period of time, they were liable to fines. Their lives became difficult and full of hardships. Their traditional rights were severely restricted.©Criminal Tribes Act The British officials were suspicious of nomadic people. They distrusted mobile craftsmen and traders who hawked their goods in villages and pastoralists who changed their places of residence every season, moving in search of good pastures for their herds.In 1871, the Colonial Government passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this act, many communities of craftsmen, traders and pastoralists were classified as Criminal Tribes. They were stated to be criminal by nature and birth.Effects of Criminal Tribes Act After this act was enforced, these communities were expected to live only in notified village setdements. They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them. They could no longer move from one place to another.(d)Grazing Tax The Grazing Tax in India was introduced by the Colonial Government in the mid-19th century. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient.Effects of the Grazing Tax To enter a grazing tract, pastoralists had to show the pass and pay the tax. Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures. The tax went up rapidly. So, the economic / hardship of the pastoralists increased.

Biofuel.

Biomass.

Biogas.

thanks

Advantage of airways in India are:

1.High Speed:It is the fast speed means of transport. Passengers and goods can be transported easily from one place to the other.

2.Minimum Cost:Unlike railways and road transport, there is no need to spend money on the construction of any track or road, only airports have to be constructed.

3.Strategic Importance:An airway has great strategic importance. It can be used for internal and external security.

4.Easy transport of costly and light goods:It is quite convenient to send costly, light and perishable goods through air transport.

The advantage of Airways is we can travel easily and very fast from here and there it is safe and not so expensive .

The following are the main advantages:

1. High Speed:

It is the fast speed means of transport. Passengers and goods can be transported easily from one place to the other.

2. Minimum Cost:

Unlike railways and road transport, there is no need to spend money on the construction of any track or road, only airports have to be constructed.

3. Strategic Importance:

An airway has great strategic importance. It can be used for internal and external security.

4. Easy transport of costly and light goods:

It is quite convenient to send costly, light and perishable goods through air transport.

5. Free from physical barriers:

Air transport is free from physical barriers like river, mountains and valleys etc.

6. Useful for Agriculture: Air transport is useful for aerial spray on pests and insects which cause harm to crops.

7. Useful in natural calamities:

During earth quake, flood, accidents and famine air transport is used for rescue operations.

It is the simple way of heavy loaded thing are one place to another place

Construction cost of roadways is much lower than that of railways.. Roads can traverse comparatively more dissecting and undulating plains.. Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can traverse mountains like Himalayas.. Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and small amount of goods over short distances.. It also provides door to door services.. Cost of loading and unloading is much lower.. Road transport is also used as a feeder to other modes of transport such as they provide link between railway station, airports and sea ports.

Waterways are the cheapest means of transport and are most suitable for carrying low cost heavy and bulky materials to long distances. It is a fuel- efficient and environment friendly mode of transport. Waterways are of two” types—a. Inland waterways, and b. Seaways or Oceanways.

The advantages of waterways are:

It is a mode of transport in areas where bridges have not yet been constructed.

It is cheaper than roadways. It is cheapest mode of transport.

It helps us to connect one remote place to another where other modes of transport are not accessible.

It suffers from less congestion problems and rather free to use.

Large number of goods can be transport economically, therefore reducing transportation cost.

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Inland water transport in India

India has about 14,500 km of navigable waterways which comprise rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. About 50 million tonnes of cargo corresponding to 2.82 billion tonne km was transported in 2005-06 by Inland Water Transport (IWT). Its operations are currently restricted to a few stretches in the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly Rivers, the Brahmaputra, the Barak River, the rivers in Goa, the backwaters in Kerala, inland waters in Mumbai and the deltaic regions of the Godavari-Krishna rivers.

The decline of river transport began with the construction of the railways during the middle of the 19th century. Later on the development of roads adversely affected the pros¬pects of such transport.

The diversion of river water irrigation canals made many of these rivers unsuit¬able for navigation. So much so that today its share is only one per cent in the country's transport system.

In other to increase the significance of inland waterways and to improve their efficiency, the government has identified important waterways and designated them as national waterways of India.

►National Waterway No 1 (NW-1) - The Ganga (North India)

The Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly River System connecting Haldia-Kolkata (Calcutta) -Farakka - Munger - Patna - Varanasi - Allahabad is navigable by mechanized boats up to Patna and by ordinary boats up to Haridwar.

The NW-1 stretches to more than 1620 Kms of potentially navigable waterways. Night navigational facilities are in the process of implementation.

►National Waterway No 2 (NW-II) - The Brahmaputra (North-East India)

The river Brahmaputra connecting Dhubri-Pandu (Guwahati)-Tezpur-Neamati-Dibrugarh-Sadiya stretching to about 891 Kms was declared a National Waterway in 1988. Provisions for 2-meter depth channels, night navigational facilities are under consideration.

An inland Water Transport transit and trade protocol exists between India and Bangladesh. The NW-2 connects the North East region with Calcutta and Haldia ports through Bangladesh and Sunderbans waterways.

►National Waterway No 3 (NW-III) - The West Coast Canal (South West India)

The West Coast Canal located in Gods Own Country - Kerala runs from Kollam to Kottapuram and was declared a National Waterway in 1993.The NW-3 is one of the most navigable and tourism potential area in India and has much to offer to the potential tourist.

►National Waterway 4 (NW 4)

The Kakinada-Puducherry stretch of Canals and the Kaluvelly Tank, Bhadrachalam - Rajahmundry stretch of River Godavari and Wazirabad - Vijayawada stretch of River Krishna has been declared as national waterways No. 4.

►National Waterway 5 (NW 5)

The Talcher-Dhamra stretch of river Brahmani, Geonkhali - Charbatia stretch of East Coast Canal, Charbatia- Dhamra stretch of Matai River and Mangalgadi-Paradip stretch of Mahanadi delta rivers has been declared as national waterway No.5.

Advantages of IWT

• Low Capital cost: Cost of development of an inland waterway is mere 5 – 10 % of the cost of building an equivalent four-lane highway.• Low maintenance cost: Cost of maintenance of inland waterway is placed at 20 % of that of roads.• Low fuel cost: IWT is highly fuel efficient. It has been estimated that one litre of fuel can move 24 tonne-km of freight by road, 85 by trains and 105 by IWT.

Factors affecting Inland waterways:

1.Diversion of river water for irrigation canals has reduced the flow of water and declined the navigation capacity of the rivers.2.The presence of waterfalls, cataracts and sharp bends hinders the development of waterways.3.Silting of river bed reduces the depth of water and creates problem for navigation.4.Lack of funds.5.Insufficient depth throughout the stretch of navigable waters.6.Non availability of low draft high technology vessels.7.Non availability of navigational aids resulted in restricted sailing over a long period.8.Most of the large rivers of the country enter the sea through shallow sand chocked delta channels. Thus navigation is hampered unless dredging is done.

India has been one of the seafaring country.95% of countryz trade volume is moved by sea.waterway s cheapest means of transport.it s fuel efficient, eco friendly.carries heavy n bulky goods over Long distances.

Social exclusion is ones of the major indicator for poverty analysis in India.Social exclusion is a process through which individuals or groups are excluded from facilities? benefits and opportunities enjoyed by other better off. It is both cause and consequences of poverty in India.Because of social exclusion certain section of society, like women, aged people, children, SC/STs, couldn’t avail the equal opportunities. This led them to vicious cycle of poverty. Similarly, poor people are excluded socially due to income inequalities. Due to poverty, poor people have to line in the surrounding different from that of better off people. Therefore, both social and economic inequalities led to incidence of poverty. The social exclusion on the basis of caste is more graver than that of income inequality. Therefore understanding of social exclusion helps in better targeting of anti poverty programme.

Social exclusion is ones of the major indicator for poverty analysis in India.Social exclusion is a process through which individuals or groups are excluded from facilities? benefits and opportunities enjoyed by other better off. It is both cause and consequences of poverty in India.Because of social exclusion certain section of society, like women, aged people, children, SC/STs, couldn’t avail the equal opportunities. This led them to vicious cycle of poverty. Similarly, poor people are excluded socially due to income inequalities. Due to poverty, poor people have to line in the surrounding different from that of better off people. Therefore, both social and economic inequalities led to incidence of poverty. The social exclusion on the basis of caste is more graver than that of income inequality. Therefore understanding of social exclusion helps in better targeting of anti poverty programme.

Thanks for answering.This is correct answer but can it be small

Brahmaputra is theriver related to National Waterway 2(abbreviation NW-2) and from 1 September, 1988 thiswaterwaycame into effect. It has a length of 891 km and lies between the Bangladesh border and Sadiya.

12. Arteriescarry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, andveinscarry oxygen-poor blood back from the body to the heart

13. The anode, by definition, is the electrode whereelectricityflows into. In contrast, the cathode is the electrode where the electricity flows out of.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and VP Menon Played Major Roles in Integrating Indian States!

Sardar Patel handled effectively the integration of the princely states with his diplomatic skills and foresightedness. The problem of amalgamating 562 independent states with a democratic self-governing India was difficult and delicate. But it was essential to save India from balkanization, once the Paramountcy of British crown would lapse.

Sardar Patel took charge of the states department in July 1947. He sensed the urgent and imperative need of the integration of princely states. He followed an iron handed policy. He made it clear that he did not recognize the right of any state to remain independent and in isolation, within India.Patel also appealed to the patriotic and national sentiments of the Princes and invited them to join the forming of a democratic constitution in the national interest. He persuaded them to surrender defence, foreign affairs and communication to the government of India.

He, by his tactics, broke the union of separatist princes. By August 15, 1947 all except Hyderabad, Junagarh and Kashmir acceded to India. He thereafter carried three fold process of assimilation, centralization and unification of states. The states were amalgamated to form a union and that union was merged with the Union of India.

He handled the Junagarh and Hyderabad crisis as a seasoned statesman. Nawab of Junagarh wanted to accede to Pakistan. When the people revolted, Patel intervened. Indian Government took over the administration. Patel merged it with India by holding a plebiscite.

Patel with an iron fisted hand subdued the Nizam. When the Nizam boasted anti-India feelings and let loose a blood both by the Razakars, Patel decided upon police action. He ordered the army to March into Hyderabad. The Nizam surrendered and Hyderabad was acceded to India.

Thus Sardar Patel ensured, by his calculated methods, the absorption of a multitude of princely states into the Indian Union. Without a civil war, he secured the solidarity of the nation

chhattisgarh state thinks that to set up a interfered textile park at raipur

Chattisgarh is planning to set up an integrated textile park at Raipur

The Public Sector

The public sector is usually composed of organizations that are owned and operated by the government. This includes federal, provincial, state, or municipal governments, depending on where you live. Privacy legislation usually calls organizations in the public sector a public body or a public authority.Some examples of public bodies in Canada and the United Kingdom are educational bodies, health care bodies, police and prison services, and local and central government bodies and their departments.

The Joint sectorThe concept of joint sector wherein Government and private entrepreneurs join hands to establish new enterprises is indeed an old one.The Indian Oil Corporation is the joint-Sector enterprise in India

Amul is an example of cooperative industry.

Ans :- Anand Milk Union Ltd. (AMUL) is an example forCo-operative Sector of Manufacturing Industries!option (b) is correct

Following are the points of similarity between the information technology industry in Bangalore and California: - Presence of high quality educational institutions and scientific and technological research centers. - Presence of skilled and trained workforce. - Access to major markets. - Well developed civil infrastructure. - Pleasant and clean surroundings.

Explanation:→ cotton versatility allowed it to be combined with linen and be made into velvet.

→it was cheaper than silk and could be imprinted more easily than wool, allowing for patterned dresses for women

→it become the standard fashion and because of its price, was accessible to the general public.

Soilsoffer plants physical support, air, water, temperature moderation, nutrients, and protection from toxins. ...Soilis made up of air, water, minerals and organic material and isoneof the mostimportant natural resourceson earth.

1) Surat on the Gujarat coast2) masulipatam on the coromandel coast3) Hoogly in Bengal

Ocean water is moved by three different forces:1. Waves2. Currents3. Tides

Waves:A wave is a disturbance that transforms energy through matter or empty space. Water waves move ocean water from one place to another.Currents:Currents are defined as the large movement of water in the same direction. Currents exist in both temporary and long lasting states. Currents are found on the surface of water and also in the deeper levels of ocean.Tides:Tides are the daily changes in the level of the ocean water at any given place. The main factors which cause tides are gravitational pull of the moon and the sun.

Dates are important, as they note when certain events happened. This is veryimportantbecausehistoryis recorded chronologically. It helps to know that one event happened before another event so that one can examine the relationship between events.Datesalso serve to mark periods inhistory.

Their grazing grounds shrank because their movements were regulated.

By the Criminal Tribes Act many communities were classified as the Criminal Tribes.

(b)Nomadic and pastoralist communities: Their daily lifestyles were badly affected by the new forest laws. Due to the changes brought in by forest management, nomadic and pastoralist communities could not cut wood, graze cattle, collect fruits and roots, andhunt or fish. All this was made illegal. As a result, they were forced to steal wood, and if caught, they would have to offer bribes to the forest guards. Some of these tribes were even labelled “criminal”.(c)Firms trading in timber/forest produce: Trade was conducted under complete government regulation. The British administration gave European firms the sole rights to trade in forest products of certain areas. This was a huge profit-making step for firms trading in timber/forest produce.(d)Plantation owners: They were also a happy lot like the timer-trading firms. The displaced nomadic and pastoralist tribes were often recruited by plantation owners to work on their farms. Plantation owners made big profits, making the workers workfor long hours and atlow wages. Due to the new forest laws, the workers could not even protest as this wastheir sole means of earning a livelihood.(e)Kings/British officials engaged in shikar: This group was a happy lot because the British government viewed large animals as symbols of a wild, savage and primitive society. Consequently, hunting tigers, wolves and the like was encouraged. Around 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards and 200,000 wolves were hunted down for reward during 1875-1925.

a) The Indian constitution is one of the finest and the lengthiest constitutions in the World, containing detailed provisionsb. The Constitution carries the legacy of our nationalist movement strongly endorsing the principles of liberty, equality, fraternity and justice, established in the name of the people. It establishes India as a democracy and is widely acknowledged Worldwide.c. The Constitution was framed after through deliberation and discussion, with prolonged debates.d. In fact, the constituent assembly that framed the Constitutionwas also truly representative reflecting diverse interest of the country.e. The constitution learnt and borrowed provisions from the constitutions of France, US, Britain, and modfied them to suit Indian conditions,e. All these factors added credibility to our constitution and makes it acceptable to the people today.f. Besides that it is important to note, that Indian constitution is a living document.g.​ Constitution is not a fixed document rather it reflects the changes in the society.h. The constitution can be amended as per the needs and changing aspirations of the society.i. The Indian constitution has evolved itself continuously

a. The Indian constitution is one of the finest and the lengthiest constitutions in the World, containing detailed provisionsb. The Constitution carries the legacy of our nationalist movement strongly endorsing the principles of liberty, equality, fraternity and justice, established in the name of the people. It establishes India as a democracy and is widely acknowledged Worldwide.c. The Constitution was framed after through deliberation and discussion, with prolonged debates.d. In fact, the constituent assembly that framed the Constitutionwas also truly representative reflecting diverse interest of the country.e. The constitution learnt and borrowed provisions from the constitutions of France, US, Britain, and modfied them to suit Indian conditions,e. All these factors added credibility to our constitution and makes it acceptable to the people today.f. Besides that it is important to note, that Indian constitution is a living document.g.​ Constitution is not a fixed document rather it reflects the changes in the society.h. The constitution can be amended as per the needs and changing aspirations of the society.i. The Indian constitution has evolved itself continuously.

Ans :- 1.In Public sector , govt. owns most of the assets and provides all the services.2.Railways,post office,airport,etc. are examples of public sector.3.The purpose of public sector is not just to earn profits

1.In Private sector, the ownership of assets and delivery of services is in the hands of private individuals or companies .2.Companies like TISCO,Reliance Industries Limited, dabur,etc. are privately owned .3. the motive of private sector is to earn profits.

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Kālidāsa was a Classical Sanskrit writer, widely regarded as the greatest poetanddramatistin the Sanskrit language of India. His plays and poetry are primarily based on the Vedas, the Mahabharata and the Puranas.

In determining the location of an industry, nearness to sources of raw material is of vital importance.

Nearness to the sources of raw materials would reduce the cost of production of the industry.

For most of the major industries, the cost of raw materials form the bulk of the total cost.

Therefore, most of the agro-based and forest-based industries are located in the vicinity of the sources of raw material supply.

Foreign direct investment, or FDI for short, has become a cornerstone for both governments and corporations. By acquiring a controlling interest in foreign assets, corporations can quickly acquire new products and technologies, as well as sell their existing products to new markets. And by encouraging foreign direct investment, governments can create jobs and improve economic growth.For international investors, foreign direct investment plays an extremely important role. The growth ofemerging marketshas been due in large part to incoming foreign direct investment. At the same time, companies investing abroad can realize higher growth rates and diversify their income, which creates opportunities for investors

65 million is correct answer

65 million is the right answer....

4600 million or 4.5 billion years ago

200 million years ago

65 million is correct answer

10000000 bilion yearz ago

65 million years ago

4.54 billion years ago

1000000000 before is correct answer

4500 is correct answer

65 million is correct answer

Transportation

RailMathura is situated on the major Delhi-Mumbai train route. Both Central railway and Western Railway routes pass through Mathura.

Important train that origin/terminate from Mathura: 12177/Howrah - Mathura Chambal Express.[27]

RoadMathura is connected by road to the rest of Uttar Pradesh and India.

TramA tram network has been proposed in the city, which would make Mathura only the second city in India (after Kolkata) to get tram transport. In 2017, the local MLA Shrikant Sharma announced that the trams will be operation in Mathura and Vrindavan by 2018.[28]

AirAs of now, the city has no airport but the airport was proposed to Mathura in 2012. The civil aviation minister Ajit Singh suggested Mathura's name for the site of a new greenfield international airport to chief minister of Uttar Pradesh Akhilesh Yadav. Mathura's name came into play when group of ministers terminated the planning of building Taj International Airport at Greater Noida. Land has been marked, and construction is in progress near the Yamuna Expressway, with plans to open in the next five years with regular flights to Delhi, Mumbai, Ujjain and Varanasi and some international routes in future.[29][30][31]

IndustriesMathura Refinery located in the city is one of the biggest oil refineries of Asia with 8.0 MMTPA refining capacity.[35] This oil refinery of the Indian Oil Corporation is a highly technologically advanced oil refinery and provides local employment opportunities

Early in the 18th century the Portuguese found that they could import opium from India and sell it in China at a considerable profit. By 1773 the British had discovered the trade, and that year they became the leading suppliers of the Chinese market. The BritishEast India Companyestablished a monopoly on opium cultivation in the Indian province ofBengal, where they developed a method of growing opium poppies cheaply and abundantly. Other Western countries also joined in the trade, including theUnited States, which dealt in Turkish as well as Indian opium.

Britain and other European countries undertook the opium trade because of their chronic trade imbalance with China. There was tremendous demand in Europe for Chinese tea, silks, and porcelain pottery, but there was correspondingly little demand in China for Europe’s manufactured goods and other trade items. Consequently, Europeans had to pay for Chinese products with gold or silver. The opium trade, which created a steady demand among Chinese addicts for opium imported by the West, solved this chronic trade imbalance.

The East India Company did not carry the opium itself but, because of the Chinese ban, farmed it out to “country traders”—i.e., private traders who were licensed by the company to take goods from India to China. The country traders sold the opium to smugglers along the Chinese coast. The gold and silver the traders received from those sales were then turned over to the East India Company. In China the company used the gold and silver it received to purchase goods that could be sold profitably in England.

The amount of opium imported into China increased from about 200 chests annually in 1729 to roughly 1,000 chests in 1767 and then to about 10,000 per year between 1820 and 1830. The weight of each chest varied somewhat—depending on point of origin—but averaged approximately 140 pounds (63.5 kg). By 1838 the amount had grown to some 40,000 chests imported into China annually. Thebalance of paymentsfor the first time began to run against China and in favour of Britain.

Meanwhile, a network of opium distribution had formed throughout China, often with the connivance of corrupt officials. Levels of opium addiction grew so high that it began to affect the imperial troops and the official classes. The efforts of the Qingdynastyto enforce the opium restrictions resulted in two armed conflicts between China and the West, known as theOpium Wars, both of which China lost and which resulted in various measures that contributed to the decline of the Qing. The first war, between Britain and China (1839–42), did not legalize the trade, but it did halt Chinese efforts to stop it. In the second Opium War (1856–60)—fought between a British-French alliance and China—the Chinese government was forced to legalize the trade, though it did levy a small import tax on opium. By that time opium imports to China had reached 50,000 to 60,000 chests a year, and they continued to increase for the next three decades.

By 1906, however, the importance of opium in the West’s trade with China had declined, and the Qing government was able to begin to regulate the importation andconsumptionof the drug. In 1907 China signed theTen Years’ Agreement with India, whereby China agreed to forbid native cultivation and consumption of opium on the understanding that the export of Indian opium would decline in proportion and cease completely in 10 years. The trade was thus almost completely stopped by 1917.

Opium smoking and addiction remained a problem in China during the subsequent decades, however, since the weakened central republican government could not wipe out the native cultivation of opium. Opium smoking was finallyeradicatedby the Chinese communists after they came to power in 1949.