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• The entire world is animated 
• The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma

• All things in the world have life. Even stones, rocks, and water have life and soul.
• Non-violence is the central principle of Jainism. It taught not to trouble humans, animals, insects and plants.
• The ultimate aim of human life is nirvana or getting moksha.
• Nirvana is the release from birth and rebirth.
• Karma causes birth and rebirth. If one wants to get moksha, his karma should be right. Only through the Triratnas – good knowledge, good action, and good faith-one can acquire moksha.
• To come out of the karma circle, asceticism and meditation are essential. For that worldly life should be given up. The Jain ascetics, both men and women, should take five pledges.

1. Don’t kill

2. Don’t steal 

3. Don’t lie

4. Don’t own property

5. Practise chastity

Buddhism was divided into two Mahayarta and Hinayana.

1. Hinayana means lesser vehicle or lesser wheel. Hinayana followed the basic tenets of Buddhism. They followed the old tradition. They continued using Pali to propagate their faith.

2. Mahayana means Great vehicle. They followed new principles and code of conduct. Worshipping the idols of Buddha and the Bodhisat was became an important part of this group.

3. Mahayana followers looked at Buddha as a savior and worshipped him as a god. They prayed to him for moksha and guidance. Thus piety became the main feature of Mahayana Buddhism.

4. Mahayana followers believed in the concept of Bodhisatwa. Each follower here should try to become a Bodhisatwan. By serving others and performing Doble deeds anybody can become a Bodhisatwan.

5. Mahayana followers worshipped even some famous Bodhisatwans.To propagate Buddhism, Mahayana followers used Sanskrit.

In the beginning, only men could be members. But later women were also included. It was because of the persuasion by Ananda, who was one of the dearest disciples of Buddha, that Buddha allowed women into the Sangha. They were known as ‘bikhshunis’. The first bikhshuni was the foster mother of Buddha. Her name was Mahaprajapati Gomathy. All bikhshunis were propagators of the religion. They tried hard to become ‘theri’ – respectable women who were entitled to moksha.

Stupas are found in Chaitanya’s. These are mounds where part of the mortal remains of Buddha or some things he used is buried. They have been made with bricks or stones. They have a lot of story value.

1. Even before the coming of Buddhism, the practice of making stupas was in existence. Later it became attached to Buddhism.

2. Since they are built over the remains of Buddha or the things he used, they are worshipped as a sign of Buddha and Buddhism.

Followers of Buddha built many stupas in different. parts of India. The Buddhist Book “Asokavadana Sishta” says that Emperor Asoka sent the mortal remains of Buddha to all the important towns of his empire and ordered stupas to be built over them. By the 2^nd century BC, many stupas were built. The most famous stupas are in Bharhut, Sanchi, and Saranath. Stupa is a Sanskrit word meaning a heap or mound. In the early times, stupas were in semi-circles.

Later they were known as ‘anda’. Gradually, the structure of the stupas became complex. They now acquired circular and rectangular shapes. Over the andas, they built some kind of balcony. It was called harmika which means ‘sreekovil’. It represents the  abode of god. From harmika rose a flag-post, called ‘yashti’. Around this, there were chhatris (umbrellas). Around the mound, a stone wall was constructed separating it from the material world around.

The early stupas in Sanchi and Bharhut were simple. The gates and the fences were looking as if they were made of bamboos or wood. There were four entrance arches to the stupas. These arches were decorated with sculptures. The worshippers entered the stupa from the eastern archway and went round the mound, Later these stupas were adorned with various sculptures and inscriptions. Such decorated stupas can be seen in Amaravati and Shahji-ki-dheri in Peshawar in Pakistan.

Shajahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum protected the Stupa. They spent a lot of money in the maintenance of this ancient monument. Sultan (This is just a name and not a position) Jahan Begum (1901- 1926) took great interest in the matters related to Sanchi.

She donated money to build a museum and a guest house there. It was by staying in this guest house, John Marshal wrote volumes about Sanchi. To publish the writings of John Marshal also, Jahan Begum sanctioned money. John marshal dedicated his books to Sultan Jahan Begum.

1. The protection and maintenance of the Sanchi monuments were possible because of the discretion and foresight of the rulers of Bhopal.

2. It was a great fortune that they were made safe from the greedy eyes of railway contractors, builders and the Europeans who wanted to take them away to Europe.

3. Sanchi is one of the most important Buddhist centres in India. The discovery of this completely upset our earlier concepts and understanding of Buddhism, This place is now under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Asoka built Sanchi Stupa.

Amaravati Stupa was discovered before the discovery at Sanchi. But the scholars were not then aware of the importance of preserving the historical monuments. Sanchi was discovered in 1818. Of the 4 doors, three were still intact. The 4^th was lying down. The mound did not have any damage. The Europeans tried take away the doors to London or Paris, but because of the timely interference of the rulers in Bhopal, they were protected. But the ‘Mahachaitanya’ of Amaravati still remains as a small mound. It has lost all its past glory.

The Sanchi Stupa is located on a hill in a small village called Sanchi Kanakera. This place is 20 miles north-east of Bhopal, the capital of Madhya Pradesh. Sanchi Stupa has different constructions and on the whole, it looks like a crown. Here we can see a temple built in the 5^th century BC and many other historical monuments and also a huge mound. The Sanchi Stupa was built by Asoka in the 3^rd the  century BC. During the time of the Sun gas (183-72 BC), this was further developed.

• Savior was not to Buddhism we find similar Ideas being developed in Hinduism. 
• These included Vaishnavism and Shaivism. 
• In such worship the bond between the devotee and the god was visualized as one of love and devation or bhakti. 
• Vaishnavism cults developed around the various avators.
• Recognizing each of these local deities as a form of Vishnu.
•  Shiva for instance was symbolized by the linga. 
• To understand the meanings of sculptures. Historians have to be familiar with the stories.
• Women and shudras who did not have access in Vedic learning. 
• Much of what is contained in the puranas evolved through interaction.

• Many people dissatisfied with existing religious practices and confused by the rapid social changes taking place around them. 
• The importance to conduce and values rather than claims of superiority bases on Birth. 
• Younger and weaker than one self were ideas that men and women to Buddhism were trained.

Teachers Travelled from Place to Place trying to convince one another as philosophy or the way they understand the world. Debates took place in the kutargarashala. Literally a hut with a pointed roof.

Vaishnavism is from Hinduism within which Vishnu was warshipped as the principal deity. 

Shaivism- A tradition within which shiva was regarded as the chief god.

Buddhist literature help us upto some extent in understanding the sculpture at Sanchi. It is important that the sculptures at Sanchi depict the teachings of Buddha only. The teachings of Buddha are captured in the literature.

 It is notable that Buddha used to roam around among people , preaching them on his teachings. However, he did not claim supernatural power. He told us that the world is ever changing. It is full of sorrows. Sorrow flows out of desire. Buddha asked the followers to take the middle path, not too much of penance, nor too much of indulgence.

 The literature of Buddhism is useful for the interpretation of the sculpture at Sanchi. People are shown in different moods and in sorrow. Different stages of life are depicted and so on. Hence, it can be stated that Buddhist literature throws valuable light on the sculptures of the Sanchi.

Vedic language in written by Sanskrit

Mahavira born was Kundagramam.

Answer is Viharas 

Saranath was the first venue

Mahaprajapati Gomati

The real name of Buddha was Siddhartha. He was the son of Suddhodana, the head of the Sakya Tribe. Siddhartha was born in Lumbini near Kapilavastu, in 563 BC. He showed much interest in religious matters even when he was very young.

He married his relative Yasodhara early and they had a son named Rahulan. One day the chariot driver took Siddhartha to the world outside the palace. This changed his life. He saw 4 big ‘sights’ – an old man, a sick person, a dead body and a sanyasi (ascetic).

These sights upset Siddhartha. He became aware of the mortality of man. He realized that the body becomes weaker and weaker and then it dies. The ascetic he met was sick and old but the joy and peace in him surprised Siddhartha. He then decided to follow the path of the ascetic. Soon he left the palace seeking the Ultimate Truth. This incident in the life of Buddha is known as the ‘Great Renunciation’.

To seek the Ultimate Truth, Buddha tried different things. He even tried to torture his body till he was about to die. Then he abandoned such extreme measures, and sat under a Bodhi tree, immersed in meditation. He then received Enlightenment. From then he was known as Buddha (One who is endowed with Wisdom or Enlightenment) or Tathagathan (One who has gained the Truth).

1. Buddha made his first preaching (Dharmopadesam) in Saranath. Here he spoke to five ascetics whom he knew before. This preaching is known as ‘Dharma Chakra Pravarthanam’. These five ascetics became his first disciples.

2. The rest of his life Buddha taught about Dharma or the true way of life. He died in his 80^th year, in 486 BC at Kushinagari. His mortal remains were buried in 8 different places and it is believed that in all those places Stupas were built.

Buddha born was in 563BC

In the beginning, yagas were conducted in large groups for the entire people. But from 1000 to 500 BC, yagas were conducted privately by householders for the prosperity of their family or.clan. But great yagas like Rajasuyam and Ashwamedhom were conducted only by kings and chiefs.

1. The yagas and rituals lost their earlier simplicity and purity. They became more noisy, showy, expensive and even violent. Such yagas were unaordable by, ordinary people.

2. With the increase in the yagas and rituals, the importance and prestige of Brahmins began to increase. Things like yagas became the monopoly of Brahmins. They misused their position to exploit people.

Even during Buddha’s lifetime and also after his death Buddhism began to grow popular. It spread into China, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Mangolia and Tibet. The quickly changing social environment and the dissatisfaction of people with the existing religious practices attracted them to Buddhism.

The following were the additional reasons:

1. Buddhism gave preference to values and conduct more than to birth. It rejected the caste system.

2. It stressed compassion, especially to the children and the destitute.

3. Its principles were easily understandable.

4. Buddha used Pali, the language of the common people, to propagate his religion. It increased its popularity.

5. It got the support of kings like Asoka, Kanishka, and Harsha.

6. The working of the Buddhist Sanghas also helped in increasing its popularity.

Answer is Buddhism 

1. small wheel 

2. Ashtangamangas 

3. Lumbini

• Early Vedic tradition known from the Rig-Veda compiled between c. 1500 and 1000 B.C.E. 
• The Rig-Veda consists of human in praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indra, and soma.

Begums of Bhopal made a great contribution to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi. 

Following are the major contribution made by them.

(a) Shahejahan Begum and her successor Sultan Jahan Begum of Bhopal were the rulers of Bhopal, who made generous grants to the preservation of the Stupa of Sanchi.

(b) A museum was built near the stupa and it was built mainly on the financial support of Begum Sultan Jahan Begum. 

(c) The support to preserve the stupa came from the Europeans also.

(d) French and British both took the plaster cast copies of the pillars of the stupas to be displayed in the museums at France and Britain. They also contributed financially to preserve the stupa.

(a) Dhanavati dated her inscription that she placed the inscription at Madhuvanaka in the first month of the hot season on the eighth day in the year 33 of the Maharaja named Havishka.

 (b)I think that she (the Bhikkhuni Dhanvati installed an image of the Bodhisatta to show that Mahayana sect of Budhhism was becoming popular day by day and Boddhisattas were considered great personalities in Buddhism during the reign of the Kushana rulers.

 (c)She has mentioned her own mother’s sister’s name Buddhamita. The lady was a Bhikkuni. She had also mentioned Bhikkuni Bala and her parents.

 (d)She knew the Tipitaka.

 (e)She learnt the text from the Bhikkhuni Buddhamita who was the female pupil of the Bala.

The main teachings of Jainism are as follows:

 (i) The entire world is animated. Life exists even in rocks and stones normally considered non-living.

 (ii)The principle of non-violence is practised in extreme form in Jainism. No harms should be caused to animals, plants and insects and any other living beings that may include rocks and stones too. This is notable that Jains are forbidden to eat late night lest they kill insects by mistake.

 (iii)The cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through Karma. If one is to escape this cycle of Karma, one must practise ascetism and penance. It is possible when one renounces the world. So one has to live in monastery to attain salvation.

 (iv)Jain monks have to take vows to observe the following:

 (a) Not to kill anyone

(b) Not to steal anything

 (c) Not tell lies

 (d) Not to possess property

 (e) To observe celibacy.

The ideas of the Upanishadic thinkers is not much different from those of the fatalists and materialists. This is brought out by the following arguments.

 (i) The essence of the philosophy of Jainism was already in existence in India, even before the birth of Lord Mahavir and Vardhaman.

 (ii)Ahimsa or non-violence is the most important principle of Jainism. But this also form the basic thought of Hindu religion. Thus, there is a lot of similarity between the both the streams of the religion.

 (iii)Upanishada believes and teaches Karma Theory. It means men and women should act and not worry about getting rewards. Fatalists also believed in the idea of work without thinking of the consequences. Thus there is a lot of similarity between the two.

 (iv)Both fatalists and materislists believe that human beings are made , of four elements, earth, water, sky, air and fire. 

Thus, we are inclined to agree that the idea of the Upanishad thinkers Eire not much different from that of the fatalists and materialists.

Vaishnavism and Shaivism are the two branches of Hinduism. In case of Vaishnavism, Lord Vishnu was regarded as the chief deity. In case of Shaivism Lord Shiva was regarded as the chief deity. Both traditions were part of the Bhakti movement. Bhakti movement emphasised on the love and devotion of the devotee to the God.

This tradition of Vaishnavism and Shaivism also impacted the tradition of architecture and sculpture. The temples developed the house deities. The initial temples were small and simple. It was a small room called Garbhagriha. Later it expanded, a tall structure was built on the garbhagriha. It was called Shikhara. The walls of the temple were decorated with suitors. Soon temples were built that had huge entrance and big halls for the comfort of visitors.

Many of these temples were carved out of rocks. These artificial caves were turned into temples. The tradition of article caves is old who had renounced the world. The most important were the Ajivikas, that developed as a sect during the reign of Asoka. Later a good example of the rock-cut temple is the Kailash Nath temple of the 8th Century. It was carved out of a single piece rock.

There is a copper plate inscription at the temple of Ellora wherein the sculptor exclaims, “How did I make it!” Sculpture was yet another way of expression. Deities were given many shapes and forms in the sculpture. Shiva has been shown in the form of Linga. Many deities have shown in different forms, sometimes grotesque. There were also combination of man and animal forms.

The chapter discuss the religious traditions of ancient India which included, Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, so on. As I live in the walled city of Delhi have seen people practising all these traditions.

 The religious textbooks of all religions are preserved and kept with great respect. They have been translated in many languages including many regional languages of the country. Now they are also preserved in the form of CD and other modern devices. Images are also used by worshippers of these religions. The Hindus deities have almost same images as they had in the past. Jains and Buddhists also use images.Temples are used by hindus, buddhists and jams. Mosques are made by muslims and churches by the Christians. The structure of all these are different but with some similarities too.

About 200 years after the time of Buddha King Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini. This was to announce the visit of Buddha to this place.Stupas were the mounds put on the bodily remains of the body of Lord Buddha or of any object that was used by him. At the place of stupas such objects were buried. These were places of great respect under the tradition of Buddhism, as they had the relics of Buddha. As per the description of Asokavadana winch a famous Buddhist book, Emperor Asoka gave Buddha’s relic to all major cities. Later on such places stupas were put. The most important stupas are at Sanchi, Bharhut and Saranath.

The structure of a stupa was like a dome and hemisphere. On the top of it, there would be a balcony called harmik. This balcony represented the abode of God. The harmik was covered with an umbrella. There used to be railings around the balcony. The construction of the stupas was made possible by the contribution of many. On the forefront were the monarchs. The Satvahan Kings offered huge amount for the construction of the stupqs. Apart from the monarchs, merchants, artisans and common men and women also contributed to the construction of the stupas.

On the pillars and bars of the stupas, there are many inscriptions. These inscriptions record that the stupas were built with the donations from people. From a different sections of the society, funds came. 

1. Some donations came from kings like Satavahanan.

2. Guilds also gave donations. It was the artisans who made sculptures with ivory that gave the money to make a door in Sanchi.

3. Ordinary men and women also gave donations, their names, profession, birthplace, and names of their relatives are inscribed on the stones.

4. Bhikshus and Bikshunis also gave their contributions to building the stupas.

The two traditions are Vaishnava religion and Saiva religion.

1. Vaishnavas worshipped Vishnu as the main god. Saivas worshipped Siva. In their worship piety was the main factor. Piety is the love and dedication the worshipper shows his god.

2.  In Vaishnava religion, the followers accepted the ten avatars of Vishnu. The Vaishnavites believed that whenever the world was threatened by immoral powers with violence and destruction, Vishnu appeared as a new avatar to save the believers.

3. Different avatars became popular in different parts of the country. Local deities were also viewed as Vishnu’s avatar. It was a way to make a unified religious tradition. In different sculptures, Vishnu appeared in different forms.

• After Buddha's Death his teachings were compiled by his disciples at a council of elders or senior monks at Vaishali 
• These compilations were known as Tripitaka.

• According to Jainism the Cycle of Birth and Rebirth is shaped through karma.
• Asceticism and Penance are required to free oneself from this cycle. This can be achieved only by renouncing the world.

Dharma Chakra Pravartana means writhing in motion the wheel to of Dharma the first religious discourse of sermon delivered by Mahatma Buddha after attaining. 

• These have been reconstructed by carefully editing, translating and analysing the Buddna's texts mentioned earlier.
• Historians have also tried to reconstruct details of his life from hagiographies.