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Maxim Gorky was a famous Philosopher and writer of Russia. His main works are ‘Mother’ and ‘Children of the Sun’.

The ‘Spirit of Laws’ was the famous book of Montesquieu.

Louis XIV was the King of France at the time of the French Revolution.

J. J. Rousseau wrote the book called Social Contract.

Confessions.

Fall of Bastille on 14^th of July 1789 A.D.

“Workers of the world unite you have nothing to lose but your chains of Slavery”.

Turgenev wrote it.

Kerensky was the leader of the Mensheviks.Kerensky was the leader of the Mensheviks.

Tsar Alexander- II

The Provisional Government was formed in Russia by the Mensheviks under Kerensky.

At Petrograd city.

New Economic Policy.

Socialistic Principles were advocated by the Russian revolution.

Fyodor Dostoyevsky wrote it.

The Socialist Democratic Party in Russia split in 1903, into Radicals and Moderates. Radicals led by Lenin came to be known as Bolsheviks which means the majority. They wanted to bring about changes by more radical and violent means.

Tsar Nicolas II was ruling Russia at the time of the Russian Revolution.

Tsar Alexander III.

The Socialist Democratic Party in Russia split in 1903, into Radicals and Moderates. Moderates led by Alexander Kerensky were called Mensheviks which means minority. They wanted to bring about changes by gradual and peaceful means.

The Letters on the English’ was the book written by Voltaire.

1. Agriculture: Revolution in Agriculture began centuries before Industrial Revolution. The invention of machinery gave it a big impetus. It lessened the dependence on labour and freed labour from land to work in the new industrial mills. As the revolution in industry progressed, a series of machines became available which increased the food production.

2. Transport: Industrial Revolution improved Britain’s Transport Infrastructure a turnpike road network, a canal, and waterway network and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved faster and cheaper than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.

3. Railways: Wagon ways were used to move coal from mines. The introduction of railways made it highly successful in the transportation of passengers and freight. Many railway projects were undertaken. After completion of the railway projects, the workers did not return to the rural lifestyles.

They remained in the cities adding additional workforce to the factories. Canals: Canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres across the country. These canals helped the growth of commercial activities. The Bridgewater Canal in North West England was the first such successful canal.

4. Roads: A number of new roads were built by private people and companies who collected tolls from the users. They connected major cities of England which helped the quick transport of men, material, and mails to distant parts.

Representatives of the 12 colonies except Georgia assembled at the first continental Congress of Philadelphia held on 5th September 1774 A.D and formulated the future course of action and drew up a ‘Declaration of Rights’. This confirmed their resolve that the colonists could not be taxed without their consent.

This act passed in 1774 by the British Parliament, granted most of the Ohio county to the French which was opposed by the colonists as they wanted to expand westwards. It also permitted the French Canadians to Practice Roman Catholicism in America much to the resentment of the colonists. The colonists felt that the British were trying to ‘Divide and Rule’.

British Parliament passed an act in 1773 and gave the monopoly of Tea trade to the East India Company, which was resented by the colonists. When a ship loaded with tea packets arrived at Boston, the colonists disguised as Red Indians raided the ship and threw all the tea packets into the sea. This incident is called‘Boston Tea Party’.

American colonists protested the imposition of new taxes. When they revolted, Britain sent its troops to put down the revolt. British troops occupied Boston and in the clashes between the troops and the colonists in 1770, five Bostonians lost their lives and many were injured. This incidence is known as the ‘Boston Massacre’.

Lenin organized the Social Democratic party in 1898 A.D.

Industrial Revolution brought in changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology.

The Industrial Resolution had its profound effect on social, economic and cultural conditions of that time.

The Industrial Revolution (1750-1850) witnessed changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology. It had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. In the second half of the 18^th century, a new revolution gripped the world that it was not ready for.

This was neither political nor social or cultural in nature. But it led to many implications later in its existence. It was an economic one. It began in the United Kingdom and then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, North America, Japan and eventually the rest of the world. Industrial revolution marked a major turning point in history.

Almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Most notably, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented growth. After the 18^th century, the World’s average per capital income increased over tenfold while the world’s population increased over six times in the next two centuries. The industrial revolution changed the way by how the world produced its goods.

It also changed our society from being mainly an agricultural society to an industrial and manufacturing one. It began in the field of textiles because there was more demand for cloth. Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution. Britain was the first country in Europe to begin the process of industrialization. It had a lead over the rest of the European nations.

Factors contributing to Britain’s lead were as follows:

1. It had achieved Political stability after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. 

2. National Banking system was the first of its kind in Europe, to invest with low-interest rates. 

3. The availability of Natural resources like coal and iron in Britain. 

4. There was an increase in population due to better health facilities, low mortality rate, better diet, etc. This excess population gave rise to a larger workforce, ready to work at low wages and there was also an increase in the number of consumers.

The seven years war with France was a big financial burden on England. To recover these expenses, England levied taxes on goods imported into the colonies. The Sugar and Molasses Act was passed in 1764 which levied taxes on sugar and molasses. The tax on molasses was a hindrance to the production of wine. It led to the increase of smuggling activities and the colonies faced many problems. The public outcry made the British Parliament to decrease the same.

The stamp act was passed in 1764, which declared that stamp duties were to be paid On all legal documents. The colonists opposed this Act. They said that the British Parliament did not have the right to tax the colonists when they were not given representation in the Parliament. Their slogan was ‘No Taxation without Representation’. The colonists showed their anger by burning the stamps. British Parliament was forced to withdraw this act.

In 1767, the Townsend Act was passed which imposed heavy taxes on Glass, Paper, and Tea. Troops were sent to help the officers in collecting the taxes. When the colonists protested and revolted, troops were sent to put down the same. British troops occupied Boston and in a fight with them, five people lost their Have and many were injured. After this ‘Boston Massacre’, taxes on glass and paper were withdrawn and to show their power and control, tax on tea was retained.

Boston Tea Party: British Parliament passed an Act in 1773 and gave the monopoly of Tea trade to the East India Company. Colonists resented it. Cheaper Tea powder was available in the black market. When the first consignment came to New York and Philadelphia they were forced to go back to England. But again when another ship loaded with Tea packets arrived at Boston in 1773, the colonists disguised themselves as ‘Red Indians’ under the leadership of Paul Revere, entered the ship and threw the Tea boxes into the ocean marking the ‘Boston Tea Party’.

1. Political causes: France Was ruled by the ‘Bourbon Dynasty’ for many centuries. The French monarchy was absolute. Louis XIV, the King of France, who was called the ‘Grand Monarch of Europe’ went to the extent of saying “lam the state, I am the Government”. He believed in the ‘Divine Right Theory of Kings’. He neglected the interests of the people and ruled according to his whims and fancies. His successor Louis XV had no ability to rule the nation.

During his reign, France fought many wars viz, the War of Austrian Succession, the Seven Years War and others. In these wars, it was defeated and it was a great financial burden, The administrative system of France was highly flawed and the Rulers neglected their responsibilities and welfare of the people and were addicted to women, wine and wealth. The officials were highly corrupt and there was no uniform legal system. This type of political anarchy, absolutism, and misrule increased the dissatisfaction of the people and led to the revolution.

2. Immediate cause: The financial condition of France was deplorable by about 1789. National debt increased owing to the costly wars and lavish lifestyle of the King and his family. There was no difference between the state and the King’s personal expenditures. The unprivileged class was paying all the taxes. The Finance Ministers of France, such as Turgot, Neckar, and Colonne, suggested the reduction in unnecessary expenditures and to impose some taxes on the privileged classes to solve the financial crisis. This was not acceptable to the privileged classes and the deterioration continued.

Many great Philosophers during the 18^th century in France, criticized about the political tyranny, social inequality and economic exploitation in France and also insisted for reforms. Montesquieu, Voltaire, J.J. Rousseau, and Diderot were the important philosophers of France who lived much before the outbreak of the French Revolution. France was prepared mentally and morally for a revolt against the old regime because of the writings and speeches of these brilliant thinkers of that age. They strongly criticized the Church and social inequality and provided the intellectual justification for the revolution.

Montesquieu advocated the ‘Theory of Separation of Powers’ as per which, Legislative, Executive and Judiciary should function independently to safeguard the liberty of the people. Voltaire asked people to apply ‘Reason’ in every field. Rousseau gave the watchword of the revolution ‘Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity’. Diderot condemned the privileged classes.

1. Social Causes: Social inequality was one of the main causes for the French revolution. On the top of the social hierarchy was the King and the Royal family, next came the Clergy the I Estate and Nobility the II Estate, and below them the Commoners the III Estate.

The first two Estates were the privileged classes and the Third Estate was the unprivileged one consisting of Peasants, Workers, Teachers, Lawyers, Doctors, and Philosophers, etc. The people of I and II Estates were in minority who were less than 2% of the French population. The first two Estates monopolized all the highest offices in the Army, Church and the Government.

They were also exempted from paying taxes and free from the authority of the court. They were the owners of enormous wealth and exploited the peasants and workers. On the other hand, the conditions of the commoners were deplorable. They had to pay all taxes and were not eligible for any higher government services.

“The Nobles fight, the Clergy pray and the Commons pay”, was a popular statement in France. Thus the majority of the French people were disgusted owing to their social inferiority and discrimination, which paved the way for the outbreak of this revolution.

2. Economic Causes: The policy of taxation in France was defective and unfair. The burden of tax mostly fell on the Commoners, because the Clergy and Nobles were exempted from all kinds of taxes. Commoners had to pay ‘Tai lie’(Property Tax), ‘Gable’ (Salt Tax), ‘Tithe’ (Religious Tax) and other cesses to the Government. The peasants and workers after paying all these taxes were left with only 18 to 20% of their earnings. Even during the famines they had to pay their taxes and were suffering from untold miseries.

Thousands of people died due to starvation. If 10 people died in France, 9 would have been due to the starvation and the tenth one due to indigestion” was the condition of France on the eve of the French Revolution. This kind of economic exploitation and discontent among the common people made them to revolt against the discriminative taxation policy of the French Government.

British Parliament passed an act in 1773 and gave the monopoly of Tea trade to the East India Company. Colonists resented it. Cheaper Tea powder was available in the black market. When the first consignment came to New York and Philadelphia, they were forced to go back to England.

But again when another ship loaded with Tea packets arrived at Boston in 1773, the colonists disguised themselves as ‘Red Indians’ under the leadership of Paul Revere, entered the ship and threw the Tea boxes into the ocean. This incident is called the ‘Boston Tea Party’.

To retaliate, in 1774 the British Prime Minister Lord North Broke introduced four coercive acts on the colonists putting some restrictions and giving liberal concessions for the British soldiers. These acts were called as Intolerable Acts and helped in uniting the colonists further . in their war of Independence.

George Washington 1732-1799: He was born in Virginia on February 22, 1732 A.D. He was the son of a landlord. He gained his military experience during the seven years war in Europe 1 and got a reputation as a capable leader. He was a better soldier than a great leader and a man of determination and courage. He became a symbol to the Americans.

(i) The first battle between the British troops and the Colonies took place around Boston, known as the Battle of Bunker hill in 1775 A.D. Though the Colonies lost that battle, they proved the fighting qualities of their militia. Every defeat filled Washington with fresh enthusiasm for further success.

(ii) He went on recruiting the hardy farmers and foresters and gave them training and adequate equipment. He could enlist the support of Spain, Red Indians and French.

(iii) The Americans tried to capture Canada but failed. Washington secured brilliant victories against the British at Trenton.

(iv) The second Continental (Philadelphia) Congress in 1775 appointed Washington as the commander-in-chief of the Colonial army. In 1776, Americans lost Philadelphia but they gained a decisive victory at Saratoga in 1778 A.D. This was the turning point in the war. The British were compelled to evacuate Philadelphia in 1778 A.D.

(v) In 1781, Cornwallis, the British General established himself in the village of Yorktown and began building fortifications. Washington decided to win an impressive and decisive victory against Cornwallis. The war came to an end by the treaty of Paris in 1783. England recognized the independence of the 13 Colonies. The 4^th of July was a great day for Americans.

(vi)Third Philadelphia Congress was held in 1787. The Congress decided that the States should unite together into a Federation and the new Nation was to be called U.S.A. Washington became the first President of America on 30^th April 1789. He declined to be the President for the third term.

(vii) He made way for the younger revolutionaries to lead the nation. He passed away on 14^th December 1799. He was the father of America. The saying “George Washington was first in war, first in peace, first in the hearts of his countryman” aptly sums up the feelings of the Americans.

The working classes in Russia were influenced by Marxism. They organized Workmen’s Social Democratic Party. The Party split into two in 1903 on ideological grounds. The radicals, led by Lenin, came to be known as Bolsheviks, while the moderates led by Alexander Kerensky yere called Mensheviks.

After the defeat of Russian in 1915 in the World War-I, revolutionaries insisted on overthrowing the Tsarist regime. Rasputin was killed by the end of 1916. Demand for constitutional reforms in the ‘Duma’ had begun even before the World War I. Tsar dissolved ‘Duma’ and arrested its members. Negligence of administration had an adverse effect on food supply.

On March 8^th,1917, women workers organised a protest at Petrograd demanding food. On March 9th a large number of workers joined the protest. They gave a call for a general protest on March 10^th. Soldiers were ordered to open fire on these protesters, but they refused to obey and supported the workers. Tsar Nicholas II had to abdicate the throne on March 15^th .

After ousting the Tsar, a provisional government was established in Russia headed by Kerensky. This is called as the Menshevik Revolution or theMarch Revolution. The government ensured freedom of speech and association, upheld the freedom of press and religion and encouraged liberal reforms. But the provisional government continued to participate in the First World War and suffered serious setbacks.

The Menshevik Government under Kerensky failed to remain in power, because, the aspirations of the Russians for land, peace, and security were not fulfilled. Finally, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, challenged the Menshevik government on 15^th October 1917, and ultimately overthrew them on 25^th October 1917.

This is called as the October Revolution or Bolshevik Revolution. With the help of the ‘Red Army’, Lenin who came to power fulfilled these aspirations by using force. Thus U.S.S.R was established after the October Revolution. Lenin became the head of the Republic and continued in office till his death in 1924.

In the Russian Revolution, the role of Intellectuals, that too of writers was immense. The major literary works like Leo Tolstoy’s ‘War and Peace’ and’ Anna Karenina’, Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s-1 Poor Folk’, Maxim Gorky’s ‘Mother”, and ‘Children of the sun’, Turgenev’s ‘Fathers and sons’, etc., generated a new sense of awareness among Russians. It made them reflect over questions of human freedom, fate, sufferings and the meaning of life. They began to realise that human beings were not destined to endure the tyranny let loose by a handful of autocrats.

As a result of regular contacts with Germany, many Russian intellectuals were drawn towards Marxism. Prominent among them were Lenin, Kautsky, and Trotsky. The writings of Karl Marx (1818-1882) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) were widely read. Marx’s major works were ‘Communist Manifesto’ (1848) and ‘Das Capital’ (1867). These writings upheld the principles of socialism based on social and economic equality. The call of Karl Marx to the workers was “Workers of the world unite you have nothing to lose but your chains of Slavery”, which inspired thousands of young men and women.

William Sugg introduced Gas Lighting on a large scale. It was introduced in London.

The punitive and oppressive laws passed by the British Parliament and the heavy taxes were disapproved by the Colonists. Alarmed by the repressive policy of the British, all the Colonies united together in their opposition. On 5^th September 1774, delegates of 12 Colonies except Georgia met at Philadelphia to decide the future plan of action. This is known as the First Continental (Philadelphia) Congress. The Congress drew up a ‘Declaration of rights’ and sent a petition to George III requesting him to intervene and redress their grievances. But George- III turned a deaf ear to their plea and branded the members of the Congress as revolutionaries. Moreover, he ordered his troops to crush them.

This action of the King was not tolerated by the Colonists. The Congress appointed George Washington as the Commander in Chief of the Colonial army to fight the British troops and on 4^th July 1776 proclaimed their Independence from the control of England.

A Declaration of Independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson was unanimously adopted by the Colonies. Infuriated with the colonist’s attitude, Britain declared war on America. In the early stages of the war, the British had an upper hand. Americans lost the Bunker Hill battle but won at Trenton and Prinistjne.

Washington crushed the British in the battle of Saratoga and on 17th October 1777, the British Commander-in-Chief surrendered to him. This was the turning point in the war. The war continued and Lord Cornwallis and the British army under him were routed at York Town in 1781. The war came to an end with the. Treaty of Paris in 1783. England recognized the Independence of the 13 Colonies. 4^th of July was a great day of Americans and is their Independence day.

1. Social and Economic Causes: The Russian Society was divided into two categories as the privileged and the unprivileged. The privileged class included the Royals, the landlords and the capitalists (factory owners). They were rich and also had a high status in the society. Civil, administrative and military posts were reserved for them. The unprivileged class mainly consisted of the peasants and the workers. It formed the majority population. They were living in poverty and also were exploited by the privileged classes. Serfdom was abolished in 1861, but the condition of the peasants did not change for the better.

The Russian economy before the Revolution was primarily agricultural. The Industrial Revolution created a large working class. These workers worked for long hours for low wages and they worked in dangerous and unhygienic conditions. Accidents and deaths were not adequately compensated. The Russian Industries created wealth for the owners but affected the agriculturists. As most of the industrialists were landlords, they neglected agriculture and forced agricultural workers to work in their industries. As agricultural production decreased, inflation set in. People were pushed to hardships.

This revolution abolished absolute monarchy and ended the political anarchy and misrule of the French Kings. It paved way for the establishment of a Republican Government in France based on the democratic principles, as propounded by Montesquieu, J.J. Rousseau, and others. The French Revolution ended Feudalism and hereditary aristocracy. It proved that suppressed ones can revolt against the oppressive Government.

It put an end to the special privileges of the Clergy and Nobility and their properties were confiscated. Thus social inequality also ended. The new constitution declared the rights of man, which upheld the ‘Doctrine of popular sovereignty’. This revolution popularized the ideas of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity in other countries of the world.

It spread the feeling of unity and taught the principle of Nationalism among the French people. Hence, it became a source of inspiration to the Unification of Italy and Germany and finally freedom movements in other parts of the world including India. H.A.L Fisher says “If cold attacks France, the entire Europe sneezes”.

This revolution caused heavy bloodshed. During ‘The Reign of Terror’, nearly 17000 people were killed. Even King Louis XVI, his Queen Marie Antoinette, and others were guillotined. The Directory Government, which came to power after the revolution, failed to rule properly. Again there was chaos and confusion in France.

This gave an opportunity for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte as the military Dictator of France. He called himself as the ‘Child of Revolution’. Thus the French Revolution was indeed a great event in the history of France. The political developments after this revolution greatly changed the course of the History of Europe and also the world.

The two major chemicals invented during the Industrial Revolution were Sodium carbonate and Sulphuric Acid.

James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny.

Madame Deficit was the nickname of Marie Antoinette.

Rasputin was the monk who influenced the administration of Tsar Nicholas II.

J. J. Rousseau was the French philosopher who supported the benevolent despotism.

Divine Origin.

Tsarina Alexandra.

Jean Jacques Rousseau was known as ‘The Father of French Revolution’.

The Romanov dynasty was ruling Russia at the time of Revolution.