Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in .

The Allahabad pillar inscription describes the conquests of Samudragupta. Harisena composed the Allahabad pillar inscription.

Pulikeshi – II was the most famous ruler among the Chalukyas of Badami.

Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh was the biggest Stupabuiltby Ashoka.

Kalidasa wrote the famous drama Shakunthala.

Dhanwanthri is called ‘The father of Indian Medicine’ (Ayurveda).

Gandhara art: The Kushana period was famous for the growth of Gandhara ait. The important centres of this art were Jalalabad, Hadda and Baniyan in Afghanistan. Peshawar became the meeting ground^of the eastern and western cultures. Greek and roman sculptors and artists were brought to construct buildings, Viharas and Chaityas.,This art was a combination of the Indian and Greek (Greco-Buddhist) styles. This new school of art called the Gandhar school of art originated in the Gandhara region, now in Afghanistan.

Main characteristics of the Gandhara art:

1. In this school of art, the life size statues of Buddha were carved. Until then, the Buddhist existence was shown only in the form of symbols like lotus, umbrella etc. 

2. While carving the statues, utmost care was given to the symmetry of the body including the muscles and moustaches which were shown in a natural setting. 

3. In the specimens of the craftsmanship of this art, the folds and turns of the clothes were exhibited with minute care and skill. 

4. In this art, the ornaments that were carved on the statues received much attention which added to the physical beauty of the statues. 

5. Polishing the statues was an important feature of this ait. 

6. The specimens were mostly prepared in stone, terracotta and clay.

The technique used in making the statues was greek but, the idea, inspiration, and personality were all indian. According to Dr. R.C. Mazumdar – ‘The Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an indian. It is for this reason, that in the statues and images made under this art, an attempt was made to carve Lord Buddha like the Greek God Appolo. The Gandhara style spread to south east Asian countries as the parent of the Buddhist art.”

Purushapura (Peshawar in Pakistan) was the capital of Kanishka.

Kanishka was the greatest of the Kushana Emperors. There are controversies about the date of Kanishka’s accession. The most probable date is 120 C.E. Another school of thought projects Kanishka as the founder of the Saka era (78 CE). Purushapura (present Peshawar in Pakistan) was his capital.

Conquests (Expeditions): Kanishka was a great warrior, ambitious and imperialistic Ruler. He extended his Empire in different directions very rapidly. His Empire consisted of Baclria, Persia, Afghanistan, Punjab and a large portion of Sindh.

Kashmir: Kanishka annexed Kashmir during his early reign and founded a city called Kanishkapura (the present day Srinagar), where he built many monuments.

Expeditions on Magadha, Saka and Sathrapas: He conquered Kashmir, occupied Punjab, . Mathura, Saketa and Benaras. Then he turned towards the famous city of Pataliputra (Patna). After a glorious victory, he returned to his capital Purushapura along with the famous buddhist scholar, Ashvaghosha. Towards the west, Kanishka marched against the Parthians and got victory over them, and established his supremacy over a very large area.

War with China: After the conquest of the northern India, Kanishka turned his attention towards China. Kadphises-II (Kushana) had suffered defeat at the hands of the Chinese general Pan-Chao and as a result of this defeat, the Kushanas had to pay a heavy annual tribute to the Chinese King. Kanishka stopped paying the tribute and invaded China, but the Chinese general Pan-chao defeated him.

After making renewed preparations, he attacked China once again but the Chinese general Pan-Chao had died by then and his son Pan-Chanang, the new general was defeated by Kanishka and he annexed three Chinese provinces into his Empire. Kanishka was the first Indian ruler who established territories outside India. His Kingdom extended to Kashgar in the north, Sindh in the south, Benaras in the East and Afghanistan in the west.

Religion (Kanishka’s religious policy): The Kushanas who belonged to the Yuch-Chi tribe, followed tribal religious customs. After their settlement in India, they adopted Indian culture and Hinduism. Kanishka was also a follower of Hinduism. In course of time, he was attracted towards Buddhism by the influence of Ashwaghosha. Kanishka attempted to serve and spread Buddhism in China, Tibet, Japan and other central Asian countries. He organized the 4lh buddhist council in Kashmir. 

The main purpose of the council was to settle the dispute existing in Buddhism at that time. During his rule, Buddhism split into Hinayana and Mahayana Sects.

Patronage to art (Gandhara art): Kanishka was a great lover of art and literature. He patronished Sanskrit language and had great scholars like Ashwaghosha, Vasumitra, Nagarjuna and Charaka in his court. Ashwagandha wrote Budda charita and Sutralanara. Nagarjuna wrote Madhyamika sutra and Charaka wrote a treatise on Ayurveda.

Kanishka was a great builder, and fine buildings of architectural beauty are found at Gandhara, Mathura, Kanishkapura and Taxila. The Kushana period was important for the growth of Gandhara art. it became the meeting ground of eastern and western cultures, known as the Greco-buddhist style. Combining Indian and Greek styles, there arose a new school of art called ‘The Gandhara School of Art’. This style originated in the Gandhara region, now in Afghanistan.

Shantaladevi (called as Natya Saraswati) was the Queen of Vishnuvardhana. She was a follower of Jainism.

Buddha preached four noble truths (Arya satyas). They are 

1. The world is full of sorrow, (pain or misery) 

2. Desire is the root cause for all sufferings, (sorrow) 

3. Sorrowing can be ended only by the elimination of desires. 

4. Desire can be overcome by following Asthangamarga or eight fold path.

Nagachandra was called as‘AbhinavaPampa’.

The Gupta era began in 320 CE during the reign of Chandragupta-I

Mahadeva temple at Itagi (Gadag)MahadevaDandanayaka built it.

Hoysalas were the feudatories of Chalukyas of Kalyana.

Vishnuvardhana assumed the title ‘Talakadugonda”.

Channakeshava temple at Belur built by Vishnuvardhanain 1117 C.E., Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebeedu built by Narasimha-I in 1121C.E., Keshava temple at Somanathapura built by Narasimha-III in 1268 C.E.

Vikramaditya-VI started the Vikrama era in 1076 CE.

Vikramaditya assumed titles like Permadideva andTribhuvanamalla. He is called as the ‘Moon of Karnataka’. (Karnataka Chandra).

Buddha means the enlightened one.

Amarasimha wrote Amarakosha.

Siddhartha attained enlightenment under a pipal tree at Gaya.

Vardhamana was bom in 599 BCE at Kundagrama near Vaishali.

Chandragupta-II had the title Vikramaditya.

KujulaKadphis is was the first ruler of the Kushanas.

Kanishka was the greatest ruler of the Kushanas.

Ranna was patronized by Sathyashraya.

Fa-hien was a Chinese pilgrim, who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta-II. He came to India to study Buddhism.

Some important sources that help us to study the Gupta history are:

• The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta. 
• Mudrarakshasa and Devi Chandraguptam of Vishakadatta. 
• Works of Kalidasa and Kavyamimamse by Rajashekara. 
• Writings of Fa-hien and Itsing.

The well known scientists of the Gupta period were, Aryabhatta, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Vriddh Vagbhata, Dhanvantari, CharakaandShushrutha.

Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism.

Malik Kafur invaded the Hoysala Kingdom, during the reign of Ballala-III.

The author of this edict was Harisena. It is made of 33 lines of Sanskrit prose and verse. This inscription is in the nature of a prasasti. It throws light upon personal qualities and conquests of Samudragupta.

Sala was the founder of the Hoysala Kingdom.

Someshwara-III’s ‘Abhiiashithartha Chintamani or Manasollasa’ is considered as the first Encyclopaedia of Sanskrit.

Ranna was conferred with the title‘Kavichakravarthi’.

Ponna is called ‘Ubhaya Kavichakravarthi’, patronised by Krishna – III.

Arikesari -II,

Pampa is called the Adikavi of Kannada, patronised by ArikeshariII.

Sulaiman was an Arab traveller. He visited the Rashtrakuta Empire during the period of Amoghavarsha in 851 C.E.

Pampa, Ponna and Ranna were considered as the trinity of Kannada literature.

Rajaraja Chola-I and Rajendra Chola-I were the powerful rulers.

In the word Rashtrakuta, ‘Rashtra’ means country and ‘kuta’ means head.

The Chalukyas and Pallavas were contemporary Rulers in the south. So, for the establishment of supremacy over each other, there was an ongoing conflict between them from the 6th to the 8th century C.E. Pandyas played an important role in this conflict. The conflict was to establish control over the Krishna – Tungabhadra doab region.

In the first stage of the conflict, Pulikeshi – II defeated Mahendravarman -1 in the battle of Pallalur. Then he annexed Kanchi. Later, Narasimhavarman -1, son of Mahendravarman -1 defeated Pulikeshi -II and seized the Chalukyan capital, Badami in 642 A.D.

Vikramaditya -1 (son of Pulikeshi II) conquered Badami back from the Pallavas. He defeated the Pallava rulers Narasimhavarman I, Mahendravarman II and Parameshwaravarman -1. Later, his son, Vinayaditya defeated Mahendravarman – II and conquered Kanchi. His grandson Vijayaditya, defeated Parameshwaravarman – V. Finally, there was peace with Narasimhavarman – II, and many temples were built at Kanchi.

Pallava and Chalikya conflict started once again, during the reign of Vikramaditya – II. He invaded Kanchi, defeated the then Pallava ruler Parameshwaravarman – II at Vilanda in 731 C.E., and invaded Kanchi again in 735 C.L. and conquered it by defeating Nandivarman. He donated a lotto the Rajasimha temple at Kanchi and got an inscription composed about his victory; When the Rashtrakutas reduced the influence of the Chalukyas, the continuous conflict between the Chalukyas and Pal lavas came to an end. ,

Harshavardhana (606-647 C.E): Harshavardhana was the greatest ruler of the Vardhanas. He came to power in 606 C.E. Prabhakara Vardhana and Yashomathi were his parents. He had an elder brother Rajavardhana and a younger sister Rajyashri. Prabhakara Vardhana was succeeded by Rajavardhana. Yashomathi pained by the death of her husband, committed Sati in 605 C.E. Devagupta of Malwa killed Rajyashri’s husband Gruhavarma and imprisoned her at Kanauj. Rajavardhana who went to get her released, was killed by Shashanka of Gaudadesha. Harshavardhana came to power under such painful circumstances.

Immediate tasks and conquests : The immediate task of Ilarsha was twofold One to crush his enemies and the other to save his sister from the ememy’s prison. King Shashanka of Bengal was responsible for the murder of Harsha’s brother and even for imprisoning Rajyashri. Harsha marched against Shashanka and won a diplomatic victory by concluding a treaty of friendship with Bhaskaravarma of Kamarupa, then attacked Shashanka and took revenge. Harsha’s first act was to rescue Rajyashri.

She had escaped from prison (Kanauj) and went towards the Vindhya forests. Harsha searched for her with great difficulty, saved her and brought her back to Kanauj. Rajyashri did not agree to rule Kanauj. Harsha was compel led to accept that and he united the Kingdoms of Thaneshwar and Kanauj. Later he shifted his capital to Kanauj. Later, he defeated Devagupta of Malwa and annexed his Kingdom. By 612 C.E., he achieved complete control over the five sindus of Punjab, Kanauj, Goudadcsha, Mithila, Orissa and other places and annexed them to his Kingdom.

Annexation of North India: HaVshavardhana won Orissa, Magadha, Vodra, Ganjam and Bengal. Later he defeated the ruler of Nepal and received tributes from him. He established his supremacy by defeating most of the north Indian Kingdoms. In commemoration of these achievements, he took the title‘Uttarapatheshwara’.

War with Pulikcshi – II : After the northern campaign, Harsha turned his attention towards south. However, he received resistance from the Chalukyan ruler, Pulikeshi – II when he tried to extend his Empire in the south. Armies of the two Emperors met on the banks of Narmada, in 634 C.E. In the battle of Narmada, Harshavardhana was defeated. Pulikeshi – II won the battle and took the title ‘Parameshwara’. As a result, the river Narmada became the boundary line of both the Empires. Aihole inscription says, that Harsha’s Harsha” (happiness) flew away,  seeing his war elephants falling in the battle field.

Extent of the Kingdom: I larsha exchanged Ambassadors with China. The credit for uniting north India after the Guptas, goes to I Jarshavardhana. His Empire extended from Bengal and Orissa in the east, Punjab in the west, Himalayas in the north and Narmada river in the south.

Religion: Harsha was a devotee of Lord Shiva and called himself ‘Parama Maheshwara’. Later, he embraced Buddhism due to the influence of Hieun Tsang. He built stupas at a few prominent places of Buddhism. He conducted a Buddhist council at Kanauj for a religious debate in 643 C.E. 3000 Buddhist monks, 1000 scholars, 20 Kings, 3000 brahmins and Jains attended the conference. A golden statue of Buddha, as well as that of the King were installed in the Auditorium. Hieun Tsang explained the philosophy of Mahayana in this council. Harshavardhana organised the Mahamoksha Parishat, at Prayag in 643 C.E. Hieun Tsang was invited to it and a procession of Buddha’s idol along with that of Shiva and Surya was taken out.

Literature: Harsha was an able administrator, patron of literature and cared for the welfare of his people. He wrote the following dramasRatnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika in Sanskrit. He patronised the famous poet Biinabhatta, author of Harshacharite. The celebrated Chinese pilgrim and scholar Hieun Tsang adorned his court. Nalanda University, which was established by Kumara Gupta, spread Mahayana Buddhist Philosophy and received the patronage and reached the zenith of its glory, during the reign of Harshavardhana.

Great Emperors like Ashoka, Kanishka and Harshavardhana patronized Buddhism.

Kavirajamarga was the earliest kannada literary work.

The Takkolam battle between Cholas and Rastrakutas in 949 C.E. led to the collapse of the Chola Empire.

The famous works of Kalidasa were Abhijnana Shakuntala, Raghuvamsha, Meghadhoota, Kumarasambhava,Vikramorvashiya, Malavikagnimitra, Ritusamharaetc.

Harshavardhana was famous as ‘Uttarapatheshwara’.

Hieuntsang presided over the religious conference at Kanauj.