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The main aim of the 4th buddhist council was to patch up the differences existing in Buddhism at that time. But, ultimately Buddhism divided into Hinayana and Mahayana schools of thought. The 4th council was held in 102 C.E., during the reign of Kanishka, at Kundalavana in Kashmir..

Harashavardhana organized a Buddhist council at Prayag in 643 C.E.

Ashoka embraced Buddhism.

The Third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra in 250 BCE.

Pulikeshi – II (609-642 C.E.): Pulikeshi – II was the most outstanding personality among the Chalukyas of Badami. He was a benevolent monarch and people enjoyed plenty and prosperity under him. Pulikeshi – II was the son of Keertivarma – I. He was still a boy when Keertivarma died. Hence, Mangalesha (Brother of Keertivarma) took over the charge of administration. Mangalesha planned to pass on the throne to his son instead of Pulikeshi – II, the rightful heir. This led to a civil war between the two.

Finally, Mangalesha was defeated and he died in the battle. Pulikeshi came to the throne in 609 C.E. Hieun Tsang’s Si-Yu-Ki, Bana’s – Harshacharite, Aihole inscription etc, give information about Pulikeshi – II. This civil war was an unfortunate incident, but became inevitable for Pulikeshi, and the throne inherited by him was not a bed of roses. This indicates that the civil war had caused a confused situattion in the Kingdom. Many chiefs wanted to take advantage of the situation and become independent. Hence they rebelled against Pulikeshi – II.

Conquests of Pulikeshi – II :

1. Attack on the Rashtrakuta chiefs : The Rashtrakutas were following a policy of aggression and expansion during the time of Pulikeshi. The Rashtrakuta chiefs Appayika and Govinda rebelled against Badami rule. Pulikeshi crushed them in a battle on the banks of river Bhima. Appayika ran away from the battle field, while Govinda surrendered to Pulikeshi.

2. Subjugation of the Kadambas, Mauryas, Alupas and Gangas : After strengthening his power and resources, Pulikeshi – II adopted a policy of conquest. He took an expedition against the Rulers of places surrounding Badami. He subjugated the Kadambas of Banavasi, Mauryas of Konkan, Alupas of south Canara and Gangas of Talakadu.

3. Attack on Lata, Malwa and Gurjaras : Pulikeshi – II set his eyes towards the North – west, on Lata, Malwa and Gurjaras. As a result, these Rulers were also defeated and he extended his territories upto Malwa. He appointed his brother, Jayasimha as the Governor of Gujarath.

4. War with Harshavardhana: The most significant and memorable of his military career was his victory over Harshavardhana of Kanauj. A powerful Kingdom had been established by Harsha who had conquered most of north India, and was making an attempt to extend his reign in the south also. Pulikeshi took an expedition towards north, and Harsha came into conflict with Pulikeshi – II. But Pulikeshi who had camped on the banks of the river Narmada, did not allow Harsha to cross the river.

Harshavardhana was defeated by Pulikeshi in the battle of Narmada in 634 C.E. Narmada became the common frontier of the two Kingdoms. After the battle, Pulikeshi assumed the title of ‘Parameshwara and Dakshinapatheshwara’. Hieun : Tsang’s record and the Aihole inscriptions give testimony to this victory of Pulikeshi – II.

5. Expedition towards East: After the Northern campaign, Pulikeshi turned his eyes towards east and conquered Kosala and Kalinga regions and the important fort of Pistapura (Godavari). He appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the Governor of these provinces. Kubja Vishnuvardhana became the founder of the Eastern Chalukya dynasty.

6. Expedition in South: The Pallava ruler Mahendravarma -1 had become powerful in the south. Pulikeshi invaded the Pallava Kingdom and defeated Mahendravarma -1 in the battle of Pallalur. Then he annexed other Pallava territories also and seized Kanchi in 632 C.E. After these successful military campaigns, Pulikeshi returned to his capital and reigned in peace for quite some time. His name and fame began to spread far and wide. He performed the ‘Ashwamedha Sacrifice’ to commemorate his victory and assumed titles like ‘Sathyashraya, Vikrama, Parameshwara, Dakshinapatheshwara, Pruthvi Vallabha, Maharajadhiraja etc.,

Extent of his Kingdom : The Kingdom of Pulikeshi – II extended from the Kosala and Kalinga (Bay of Bengal) in the east, to Konkana in the west, the river Narmada in the north and upto river Cauveri .in the south.

Due to the campaigns of Pulikeshi, his name and fame began to spread far and wide. He maintained cultural and commercial contacts with Persia and exchanged Ambassadors with the Persian Emperor Khusru – II (Ajantha cave paintings depict this scene). The Chinese pilgrim Ilieun Tsang visited the court of Pulikeshi – II in 641 C.E. He has given us afactual and reliable description about the King and his Empire.

In his last days, Pulikeshi – II had to face the attack of the mighty Pallava forces under Narasimhavarman -1. Pulikeshi was defeated in the battle, and Narasimhavarman seized the Chalukyan capital in 642 C.E. In memory of this victory, Narasimhavarman assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’.

Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Vid’ which means wisdom.

Govinda – III was honoured with the titles like Jagattunga, Prabhuthavarasha. Sri Vallabha andTribhuvanadhavala.

Dharavarsha, Srivallabha, Narendrasena, Kalivallabha.

Veda means knowledge or wisdom.

The battle of Takkolam was fought between Cholas and Rastrakutas in 949 C.E.

Rajendra Chola -1 (Reign 1014 to 1044 C.E.): Rajendra Chola was the son and successor of Rajaraja Chola -1. He came to the throne in 1014 C.E. He was also known as Gangaikonda Chola or Ultama Chola. Under him, the Chola Empire became the most extensive and powerful Empire. He gained a number of victories over the Ceylonese, Pandyas, Cheras and Eastern Chalukyas.

Conquests: Rajendra Chola defeated Mahendra – V, the King of Ceylon in 1018 C.E. After the death of Mahendra- V in prison at Tanjore, Ceylon became a part of the Chola empire. War with Chalukyas of Kalyana: Rajendra Chola declared war on Jayasimhall of Kalyana Chalukyas in 1021 C.E. and defeated him in Masangi (Maski). Vijayaditya of Vengi who came to the support of Jayasimha was defeated and expelled from the Empire. Rajendra Chola placed RajarajaNarendra on the throne of Vengi.

Northern expedition: Rajendra marched towards Orissa and defeated King Mahipala of Bengal. The Chola army marched onwards till the Ganga river. His northern expedition was successful. To commemorate this event, he assumed the title of ‘Gangaikonda Chola’ and built a new capital Gangaikonda Cholapuram near Tiruchirapally in honour of this conquest.

Expedition towards south east: In 1025 C.E. Rajendra Chola took an expedition to Shailendra in South east Asia, with his powerful army. Crossing the Bay of Bengal, he conquered Jawa, Sumatra and defeated Sangrama Vijayottunga Varman, the King of Shai lendra. He built the Gangaikonda Chola Shiva temple at Shailendra, in memory of this victory.

Rajendra Chola -1 was an able administrator and also a patron of learning. He established a higher education centre at Ennayiram (South Arcot) in 1025 C.E. Free boarding and lodging facility was arranged for 340 students, who were studying at this educational centre. Rajendra Chola -1 had many titles like ‘Pandita Chola, Gangaikonda Chola and Kedarakonda Deva etc. He increased his dignity and honour by sending his Ambassadors to China in 1033 C.E.

Rajaraja Chola -1 assumed titles like Shivapadashekhara, Cholendra Simha, Mummadi Chola deva, Jayagonda, Chola Martanda etc.,

Elected representatives for the village administration had to work in the Annual, Garden and Tank Bund commitees which were called as variyams.

Ilain Chola was the first Chola King and Uraiyur was his capital.

Sangam refers to the Tamil literary union. The period of the three literary unions between 200 B.CE to 500 C.E. is called the Sangam age.

Krishna-I built the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora.

The Pandyas of Madurai, patronized Sangam literature.

Sengunnian was the last Chola ruler of the Sangam age.

Latur was the first capital of the Rashtrakutas.

Tanjore was the capital of the Cholas.

The Arab traveller Sulaiman visited the court of Amoghavarsha.

Rajashri was Harshavardhana’s younger sister.

Manyakheta or Malakheda was the capital of the Rashtrakutas.

Rajaraja Chola-I (985-1014 C.E) was the greatest Chola ruler.

Thaneshwar was the capital of Harshavardhana.

Nasik, Ajantha, Amaravathi, Nagarjunakonda, Ghantasala, Karle, Kanheri, Kondane, Gudiwada, Jaggayapeta, etc., are the important architectural centres of the Sathavahanas.

Amoghavarsha I (814-878 C.E.).

Harshavardhana was the greatest Vardhana Ruler.

Simukha, Hala, Gautamiputra Sathakami, Vashistiputra Pulamayi, Yajnashri and others were the important Sathavahana Rulers.

Dantidurga, Krishna-I, Govinda – II, Dhruva, Govinda – III, Amoghavarsha, and Indi a – III, were some great Rashtrakuta Rulers.

Ashoka appointed Dharmamahamathras to spread Buddhism among the people.

Chavundaraya erected the Gommateshwara statue at Shravanabelagola in 983 C.E.

Kautilya was a Statesman, Scholar and teacher of Chandragupta Maurya. He is famous for his work Arthashastra which explains the art of governance of a country.

Mudrarakshasa and Devi Chandraguptham.

Megas thanes was the Greek Ambassador of Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote the book called Indica.

Siddhartha was the original name of Buddha.

Vikramaditya-VI was the greatest Ruler among the Chalukyas of Kalyana.

Badami (Vatapi) was the capital of the early Chalukyas.’

Maski is located in Raichur District. This ediet which refers to ‘Devanampriya Ashokasa’ confirms that Ashoka had the titles ‘Devanampriya’and ‘Priyadarshi Raja’.

Dwarasamudra (Halebeedu), Belur, Bankapura, Hakkundi and Kannanur were the capitals of the Hoysalas during different periods under different rulers.

Gautama Buddha was born in Lumbinivana (now in Nepal)

Dharmastheyas (Civil cases) and Kantakashodana (Criminal cases).

Manyakheta was their first capital. Someshwara-I, shifted the capital to Kalyana.

The Kashmiri poet Bilhana was the court poet of Vikramaditya – IV.

Bilhana was the court poet of Vikramaditya-VI. He wrote Vikraman ka Deva Charitham (Biography of Vikramaditya-VI).

Vardhamana attained enlightenment at Jrimbhi kagrama in Bihar.

Pataliputra (present Patna) was their capital.

Arthashasthra of Kautilya, Indica of Megasthanes, Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta, the Jain works (Parishishtaparva and Kalpasutra), Buddhist works (Deepavamsa and Mahavamsa), Ashokan edicts, Monuments etc.,

Virupakshatemple, Kasi Vishwanatha, Papanatha, Jambulingeshwara, Sangamcshwara and Mallikarjuna temples.

Buddha preached his first speech in the Deer park at Saranath near Varanasi.