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16151.

Question : How is the entry of only one sperm and not many ensured into an ovum during fertilisation in humans?

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Solution : During fertilisation in humans, when the ‘sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucida LAYER of ovum, it induces CHANGES in the ovum membrane that prevents the ENTRY of additional sperms. Thus, only one sperm can FERTILISE an ovum.
Discussion
16152.

Question : How is the duct of Bellini formed?

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SOLUTION :Seven to EIGHT collecting DUCTS JOIN TOGETHER to form the duct of Bellini.
Discussion
16153.

Question : (b) How is the amplification of a gene sample of interest carried out using PCR?

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Solution :Denaturation. renaturation or primer annealing and synthesis or primer extension, are the three steps involved in PCR. The double stranded DNA of INTEREST is denatured to separate into two individual strands by high temperature. This is called denaturation. Each strand is allowed to hybridize with a primer (renaturation or primer annealing). The primer template is used to synthesize DNA by using Taq- DNA polymerase.
During denaturation the reaction mixture is heated to `95^(@) C`for a short time to denature the target DNA into single strands that will act as a template for DNA synthesis. Annealing is done by rapid cooling of the mixture, ALLOWING the primers to bind to the sequences on each of the two strands flanking the target DNA. During primer extension or synthesis the temperature of the mixture is increased to `75^(@)C ` for a sufficient period of time to allow Taq DNA polymerase to extend each primer by copying the single stranded template. At the end of INCUBATION both single template strands will be MADE partially double stranded. The new strand of each double stranded DNA extends to a variable distance downstream. These steps are repeated again and again to generate MULTIPLE forms of the desired DNA. This process is also called DNA amplification.
Discussion
16154.

Question : How is the alien DNA introduced in a plant cell? Give examples of pathogens that can be used as a vector.

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Solution :Plant cells are bombarded with high VELOCITY micro-particles of gold or tungsten coated with DNA, in a method KNOWN as biolistics or gene gun. The pathogens that can be disarmed &USED as vector is AGROBACTERIUM lumifaciens / Retroviruses
Discussion
16155.

Question : How is snow blindness caused in humans?

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SOLUTION :Ifhuman cornea absorbshigh does of UV -B RADIATION , itcauseinflammationof cornea. THISIS calledas SHOW - blindness .
Discussion
16156.

Question : How is Simmond's disease caused?

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Solution :Simmond's disease is CAUSED due to HYPOSECRETION of GH during adulthood.
Discussion
16157.

Question : How is sickle-cell carrier has an advantage over the rest of the human population in a malaria-ridden area?

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SOLUTION :Sickle-cell HAEMOGLOBIN is UNSUITABLE for MALARIAL PARASITE.
Discussion
16158.

Question : How is sex determined in various organism? Give historical background of sex determination.

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Solution :The mechanism of sex determination has always been a puzzle before the geneticists.
The initial clue about the genetic/chromosomal mechanism of sex determination can be traced back to some of the experiments carried out in insects.
The cytological observation made in a NUMBER of insects led to the development of the concept of genetic/chromosomal basis of sex determination
=Henking (1891) could trace a specific nuclear structure all through spermatogenesis in a few insects and it was also observed by him that 50% of sperm received this structure after spermatogenesis, whereas the other 50% sperm did not receive it.
=Henking gave a name to this structure as the X-body but he could not explain its significance.
=Further investigations by other scientists led to the conclusion that the .X-body. of Henking was in fact a chromosome and that is why it was GIVEN the name X-chromosome.
= It was also observed that in a large number of insects the mechanism of sex determination is of the Xo type i.e. all eggs bear an additional X-chromosomes (autosomes).
= On the other hand some of the sperms bear the X-chromosome whereas some do not Eggs fertilised by sperm having an X-chromosome become female and those fertilised by sperms that do not have an X-chromosome become males.
=Due to the involvement of the X-chromosome in the determination of sex, it was designated to be sex chromosome and the rest of the chromosomes were named as autosomes.
= Grasshopper is an example of XO type of sex determination in which the males have only one X-chromosome besides the autosomes, whereas females have a pair of Xchromosomes.
= These observations led to the investigation of a number of species to UNDERSTAND the mechanism of sex determination.
=In a number of other insects and mammals including man, X-Y type of sex determination is SEEN where both male and female have same number of chromosomes.
=Among the males an X-chromosome is present but its counter part is distinctly smaller and called the Y-chromosome.
=Females however have a pair of X-chromosomes.
=Both males and females bear same number of autosomes.
=Hence the males have autosomes plus XY while female have autosomes plus XX.
=In human beings and in DROSOPHILA the males have one X and one Y chromosome, whereas female have a pair of X-chromosomes besides autosomes.

Determination of sex by chromosomal differences: (a,b) Both in humans and in Drosophila, the female has a pair of XX chromosomes (homogametic) and the male XY (heterogametic) composition, (c) In many birds, female has a pair of dissimilar chromosomes ZW and male two similar ZZ chromosomes.
Discussion
16159.

Question : How is sex determined in human beings ?

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Solution :In HUMANS out of 23 pairs of chromosomes present 22 pairs are exactly same in both males and females known as AUTOSOMES.
= The 23rd pair of chromosome is the sex chromosome i.e. a pair of X-chromosome (XX) is present in females and males having one X and Y chromosome (XY).
= During spermatogenesis, in case of male, TWO types of gametes are PRODUCED
= The 50% of total sperms produced carry X-chromosomes and the rest 50% carry Y-chromosomes besides autosomes.
=Female produces only one type of ovum with an X-chromosome.
= If an ovum fertilises with a sperm carrying Xchromosome the zygote develops into female [XX) and if an ovum is fertilised with sperm carrying Y-chromosome zygote thus formed will be male XY.

= Hence, the genetic MAKE up of sperm, which fertilises the ovum determines the sex of a child.
= These are 50% chances of having either a male or female in each pregnancy.
Discussion
16160.

Question : How is sex determined in human beings?

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Solution :Genesdeterminessexin HUMAN beingsare locatedon two sexchromosomes, calledallosomes .In mammals , sexdeterminationis associatedwithchromosomaldifference betweenthe twosexes ,TYPICALLY XX females andXY males .23pairsof humanchromosomesinclude 22 pairsof AUTOSOMES (44A)and onepair of sexchromosomes (XX orXY) . Femalesare homogameticproducingonlyone typegametes(egg) , eachcontaining one X chromosomewhile the malesare hetrogameticproduingtwo typesodspermswith Xand Y chromosomes. An independentlyevolvedXX , XY SYSTEMOF sexchromosomes alsoexist in Drosophila .
Discussion
16161.

Question : How is sex determined in Honey bee?

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Solution :The sex determination in honey bee is based on the number of sets of chromosomes an individual receives .
=An offspring formed from the union of a sperm and an EGG develops as a female (queen or worker) and an UNFERTILIZED egg develops as a male (drone) by means of parthenogenesis.
= This means that the males have HALF the number of chromosomes than that of a female.
= The females are diploid having 32 chromosomes and males are haploid i.e. having 16 chromosomes.
= This is called haploid diploid sex determination system and has special characteristic FEATURES such as the males produce sperms by mitosis, they do not have father and thus cannot have sons but have grandfather and can have grandsons.
Discussion
16162.

Question : Rhytidome acts as a structural defence by plants against fire - Comment.

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Solution :Rhytidome is the structural defense by plants against fire. The outer BARK of trees which extends to the last formed periderm is CALLED Rhytidome. It is composed of multiple layers of suberized periderm, CORTICAL and phloem tissues. It protects the stem against fire, WATER loss, INVASION of insects and prevents infections by microorganisms.
Discussion
16163.

Question : How is pregnancy detected by testing urine?

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SOLUTION :HORMONE HCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin) is PRESENT in the urine of pregnant women. Its presence by chemical testing confirms PREGNANCY.
Discussion
16164.

Question : How is pregnancy calculated?

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Solution :Pregnancy TAKES usually 40 WEEKS (280 days) or about 9 CALENDAR months, if it is measured from the BEGINNING of the last menstrual cycle.
Discussion
16165.

Question : How is polyspermy prevented in humans?

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SOLUTION :By fertilisin-antifertilisin REACTION
Discussion
16166.

Question : How is polyspermy prevented during fertilisation?

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SOLUTION :(a) Blocking of large number of sperms that swim to the OVUM by fertilizin molecules.(b) TRANSFORMATION of vitelline membrane into fertilization membrane (SLOW block).
Discussion
16167.

Question : How is polyspermy avoided in humans?

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SOLUTION :Once fertilization is accomplished, cortical granules from the cytoplasm of the ovum form a barrier called the fertilization MEMBRANE AROUND the ovum preventing further penetration of other sperms. Thus POLYSPERMY is prevented.
Discussion
16168.

Question : How is pollination carried out in water plants?

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Solution :(a) In many aquatic plants, flowers coming IMMEDIATELY from water are pollinated by wind and insects
(b) In aquatic plants pollination OCCURS below water surface then it is called Hypohydrophili EG. Ceratophylum.
(c ) In aquatic plants if pollination occurs above surface of water it is called surfaidal water pollination (Apihydrophili) eg. Valisneria, Spyralis
Discussion
16169.

Question : How is plant breeding useful for improved food quality ?

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Solution :More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food to meet their daily food and nutritional requirements.
A far greater number three billion people SUFFER from micronutrient, protein and vitamin deficiencies or hidden hunger because they cannot afford to buy enough fruits, vegetables, legumes, fish and meat.
Diets lacking essential micronutrients - particularly iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc - increase the risk for disease, reduce lifespan and reduce mental ABILITIES.
Biofortification: BREEDING crops with higher levels of vitamins and minerals or higher protein and healthier fats - is the most practical means to improve public health.
Breeding for improved nutritional quality is undertaken with the objectives of improving
(i) Protein content and quality, (ii) Oil content and quality, (iii) Vitamin content and (iv) Micronutrient and mineral content
In 2000 maize hybrids that had twice the amount of the amino acids, Lysine and tryptophan, compared to existing maize hybrids were developed.
Wheat variety, Atlas 66, having a high protein content, has been used as a donor for improving cultivated wheat.
It has been possible to develop an iron-fortified rice variety containing over five times as MUCH iron as in commonly consumed varieties.
The Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IART), New Delhi has also released several vegetable crops that are rich in vitamins and minerals. e.g.vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin, vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard, tomato, iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua and protein enriched beans - broad, lablab, FRENCH and garden peas.
Discussion
16170.

Question : How is plant breeding for developing resistance to insect pests useful?

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Solution :Another MAJOR CAUSE for large scale destruction of crop plant and crop produce is insect and pest infestation.
Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological, biochemical or physiological characteristics.
Hairy leaves in several plants are associated with resistance to insect pests, e.g. resistance to JASSIDS in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in wheat.
In wheat solid stems lead to non-preference by the stem sawfly and smooth leaved and nectar less cotton varieties do not attract bollworms.
High aspartic acid, low NITROGEN and sugar content in MAIZE leads to resistance to maize stem borers.
Breeding methods for insect pest resistance involve the same steps as those for any other agronomic trait such as yield or quality.
Sources of resistance genes may be cultivated varieties germplasm collections of the crop or wild relatives.
Some released crop varieties bred by hybridisation and selection, for insect pest resistance are given in table.
Discussion
16171.

Question : How is over-exploitation responsible for loss of biodiversity ?

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Solution :(B) Over-exploitation : Humans are always DEPENDENT on nature for food and shelter.
But when HUMAN needs TURN into greed, it leads to the over-exploitation of NATURAL resources.
MANY species are extint in last 500 years due to over-exploitation eg. steller.s sea cow, passenger pigeon etc.
Presently many marine fishes are over harvested, which is threatening the existence of some commercially important species.
Discussion
16172.

Question : How is Nicotiana exhibit self-incompatibility? Explain its mechanism.

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Solution :(i) In plants, multiple ALLELES have been reported in association with self-sterility or self-incompatibility. Self-sterility means that the pollen from a plant is unable to germinate on its own stigma and will not be able to bring about FERTILIZATION in the ovules of the same plant.

(ii) East (1925) observed multiple alleles in Nicotiana which are responsible for self-incompatibility or self-sterility. The GENE for self-incompatibility can be designated as S, which has allelic series `S_(1), S_(2) , S_(3), S_(4) and S_(5)`,
(III) The cross-fertilizing tobacco plants were not always homozygous as `S_(1)S_(1)" or "S_(2)S_(2)`, but all plants were heterozygous as `S_(1) S_(2) , S_(3) S_(4), S_(5)S_(6)`.
(iv) When crosses were made between different `S_(1)S_(2)` plants, the pollen tube did not develop normally. But effective pollen tube development was observed when crossing was made with other than `S_(1) S_(2)` for example `S_(3)S_(4)`.
Discussion
16173.

Question : How is milk converted into curd ? Explain the process of curd formation.

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Solution :The LAB bacteria grown in milk and convert it into curd , thereby digesting the milk protein casein . A small AMOUNT of curd added to fresh milk as a STARTER or inoculum contains millions of Lactobacilli , which under suitable temperature `(le40^(@)C)`MULTIPLY and convert milk into curd .Curd is more nutritions than milk as it contains a number of ORGANIC acids and vitamins.
Discussion
16174.

Question : How is juvenile phase different from reproductive phase?

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SOLUTION :
Discussion
16175.

Question : How is it useful in plant breeding programmes?

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Solution :Prevention of CONTAMINATION of stigma of female FLOWERS with foreign POLLENS.
Prevention of germination of foreign pollens over the stigma of EMASCULATED and cross pollinated flowers.
Great use in producing superior VARIETIES with desired characters.
Discussion
16176.

Question : How is it possible in Oxalis and Viola plants to produce assured seed sets even in the absence of pollinators?

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Solution :Oxalis and Viola produce CLEISTOGAMOUS flowers, in which ANTHERS and stigma lie close to each other. When anthers DEHISCE in the flower buds, the pollen grains fall on the stigma and fertilization is EFFECTED leading to assured seed set.
Discussion
16177.

Question : How is heroin or smack obtained?

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Solution :Heroin or SMACK is OBTAINED from LATEX of poppy PLANT, PAPAVER somniferum
Discussion
16178.

Question : How is iological evolution distinct from the chemical evolution?

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Biological evolution PRECEDED chemical evolution during ORIGIN of LIFE
Not all organisms on earth UNDERGO biological evolution
Biological evolution is not affercted by mutation
Biological evolution happens when organisms COULD replicate

Answer :D
Discussion
16179.

Question : How is HIV infection diagnosed ?

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Solution :There are several methods for the diagnosis of HIV infection such as viral culture ELISA, PCR TEST, Western Blot test, ETC.
ELISA( Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay) and Western Blot test are widely used.
Treatment of AIDS with anti-retroviral drugs is only partially effective. They can only PROLONG the life of the patient but cannot prevent DEATH, which is inevitable.
Discussion
16180.

Question : How is gene therapy useful for diagnosis for various diseases ?

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Solution :Gene therapy is useful for treatment of a hereditary disease. In which that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed in a child/embryo.
Genes are inserted into a person.s cells and tissues to treat a disease.
The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4 year old girl with adenosine deaminase (ADA) deficiency. This enzyme is crucial for the immune system to function. The disorder is caused due to the deletion of the gene for adenosine deaminase.
In some children ADA deficiency can be cured by bone MARROW transplantation, in others it can be TREATED by enzyme replacement therapy in which functional ADA is given to the patient by injection.
But the problem with both of these approaches that they are not completely curative.
As a first step towards gene therapy, lymphocytes from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture OUTSIDE the body.
A functional ADA-cDNA (using a retroviral vector) is then introduced into these lymphocytes, which are subsequently returned to the patient. However as these cells are not immortal.
So the patient requires periodic infusion of such GENETICALLY engineered lymphocytes.
However if the gene isolate from marrow cells producing ADA is introduced into cells at early embryonic stages, it could be a permanent cure.
Discussion
16181.

Question : How is Genetic Engineering better than hybridization ?

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Solution :Sexual reproduction provides opportunities for variations and FORMULATION of unique combinations of genetic setup some of which may be beneficial to the organism as well as the POPULATION.
Asexual reproduction preserves the genetic information while sexual reproduction permits variation.
Traditional hybridization PROCEDURES used in plant and animal breading very often lead to inclusion and multiplication of undesirable genes along with the desired genes.
To overcome such limitations. Genetic engineering is the best.
In Genetic Engineering, recombinant DNA is created using gene cloning and gene transfer.
Thus, Genetic Engineering allows us to isolate and introduce only one or a set of desirable genes without introducing undesirable genes into the target organism.
Discussion
16182.

Question : How is DNA isolated in purified form from a bacterial cell.

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SOLUTION :Bacterial cells are TREATED with lysozyme to break the cells open and release macromolecules. PURIFIED form of DNA is obtained by removing RNA by treabnent with RIBONUCLEASE, proteins and other molecules by appropriate treatments. Purified DNA is precipitated out by the addition of chilled ethanol
Discussion
16183.

Question : How is DNA made visible in gel electrophoresis?

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Solution : On staining with ETHIDIUM BROMIDE FOLLOWED by exposure to UV radiation
Discussion
16184.

Question : How is diapause different from hibernation?

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Solution :• Diapause is a STAGE of suspended development under UNFAVOURABLE CONDITIONS.
• Example: Many zooplankton species in lakes and ponds undergo this suspended development under unfavourable conditions.
• HIBERNATION is the winter sleep which refers to the spending of winter in a dormant state by some organisms.
• Example : Frog is a cold blooded animal. During severe cold, it buries itself deep in the MUD.
Discussion
16185.

Question : Howis diapause differentfrom hibernation ?

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Solution :Hibernatin is THEPHENOMENON commonlydepicted by ectothermalcoldbloded animalswhichescape COLD by HIDING them in shelterssuchphysiological activity. THISPHENOMENON is alsoshown by somewarmbloodedmammals .
Discussion
16186.

Question : How is Cushing's disease caused?

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SOLUTION :HYPERSECRETION of CORTICOIDS CAUSES Cushing,s DISEASE.
Discussion
16187.

Question : How is copy number of the plasmid vector related to yield of recombinant protein ?

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Solution :Copy number of plasmid is directly related to number of genes and THEREAFTER the product. HIGHER the copy number of VECTOR plasmid, higher the copy number of gene and CONSEQUENTLY, protein CODED by the gene is produced in high amount.
Discussion
16188.

Question : How is cocoon produced in the earthworm?

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SOLUTION :By GLAND CELLS of CLITELLUM.
Discussion
16189.

Question : How is Cancer caused ?

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SOLUTION :Cancer is basically uncontrolled growth of normal cells, which have lost control on cell division as a result, ABNORMAL cell develops which spreads in the body.
In our body cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled and regulated.
In cancer cell, there is breakdown of these regulatory mechanisms.
Normal cells show property of contact inhibition by virtue of which contact with other cells inhibits their uncontrolled growth.
CANCEROUS cells appear to have lost the property of contact inhibition. As a result of this, cancerous cells just CONTINUE to DIVIDE giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.
Discussion
16190.

Question : How is cardiac activity regulated?

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Solution :1. Normal activities of the heart are auto regulated. The specialized muscles help in this regulation.
2. The heart is said to be byogenic due to this ability.
3. In the MEDULLA oblongata of brain, there is cardiovascular centre.
4. From this centre, sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves innervate the sinuatrial node.
5. Sympathetic nerves secret adrenaline and it stimulates and increases the heart beat.
6. Parasympathetic nerves secrete acetylcholine and it decreases the heart RATE.
Discussion
16191.

Question : How is biotechnology useful for increasing food production in agriculture.

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Solution :There are three options for increasing food production. They are as follow : (i) Agrochemical based agriculture. (ii) Organic agriculture and (iii) Genetically engineered CROP based agriculture,
The Green Revolution succeeded in tripling the food supply but yet it was not enough to feed the growing human population.
Increased yields have partly been due to the use of improved crop varieties but mainly due to the use of better management practices and use of agrochemicals. (Pesticides and fertilizers).
HOWEVER for farmers in the developing world agrochemicals are often too expensive. Genetically MODIFIED crops are useful to obtain better yield of crops.
Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals whose genes have been altered by manipulation are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).
GM plants have been useful in many ways.
Genetic modification has : (i) made crops more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, HEAT) (ii) reduced RELIANCE on chemical pesticides. (pest resistant crops) (iii) helped to reduce post harvest losses. (iv) increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants (this prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil). (v) enhanced nutritional value of food e.g., golden rice i.e. Vitamin .A. enriched rice. In addition to these uses. GM has been used to create tailor made plants to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of starches, fuels and pharmaceuticals.
Some of the applications of biotechnology are the production of pest resistant plants which could decrease the amount of pesticide used.
Bt toxin is produced by a bacterium called Bacillus, thuringiensis.
Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the bacteria and been expressed in plants to provide resistance to insects without the need for insecticides in effect created a bio-pesticide. Examples are Bt cotton, rice, tomato, potato and soyabean etc.
Discussion
16192.

Question : How is blood glucose level maintained?

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Solution :1. The blood glucose level is maintained by the JOINT action of antagonistic action of insulin and glucagon.
2. Insulin is hypoglycemic HORMONE while glucagon is hyperglycemic hormone.
3. When there is excess sugar in the blood, more insulin is secreted by the PANCREATIC islets. This causes the CONVERSION of blood glucose into glycogen. This process is known as glycogenesis. Glycogenesis causes decline in the level of glucose in the blood.
4. When there is less blood glucose level then the glucagon is secreted. It causes stored glycogen to be converted into glucose. This process is called glycogenolysis.
Discussion
16193.

Question : How is bird flu controlled?

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Solution :The infected BIRDS are KILLED and BURIED under SOIL.
Discussion
16194.

Question : How is biodiversity improtant for ecosystem functioning ?

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Solution :Richbiodiversity.
(a) Provides stabilityto the ecosystem .
(b) CONTRIBUTES to higherproductivity .
(c) ESSENTIAL for ECOSYTEM HEALTH.
Discussion
16195.

Question : How is ash significant in the study of mineral nutrition of plants?

Answer»

It gives quantitative VALUES of MINERALS in soil
it informs, which element is essential and in which AMOUNT it is NECESSARY for a particular plant
it is of no practical significance
it indicates how much irrigation is needed for a plant

Answer :B
Discussion
16196.

Question : How is biodiversity important for ecosystem functioning ?

Answer»

Solution :Biodiversity PLAYS a major role in many ecosystem services that nature provides.
Pure oxygen : The Amazon forest is estimated to produce through photosynthesis `20%` of the total oxygen in the Earth.s atmosphere.
Pollination : Without which plants can not give us fruits or seeds is another service ecosystems provide through pollinators butterflies, bees, bumblebees, birds and bats.
Flood and soil erosion control : Plants help water retention, percolation and PREVENT soil erosion.
Nutrient replenishment : Plant biomass that falls on ground is the biggest SOURCE of recycled nutrients after decomposition.
Recycle : Waste recycling by microbes and other insects etc. without which the earth would simply become a huge pile of garbage and polluting material.
Aesthetic pleasure : That we derive from nature by walking through thick woods, watching spring flowers in FULL bloom or waking up to a bulbul.s song in the morning.
Discussion
16197.

Question : How is biodiversity important for ecosystem functioning?

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SOLUTION :THREE REASONS for CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY.
Discussion
16198.

Question : How is anemochory differ from zoochory?

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SOLUTION :
Discussion
16199.

Question : How is AIDS Transmitted ?

Answer»

Heterosexual or homosexual physical contact with AIDS patient.
HIV infected BLOOD TRANSFUSION
By reusing the needle or SYRINGE used by an AIDS patient.
All of the above

Solution :All of the above
Discussion
16200.

Question : How is Addison's disease caused?

Answer»

Solution :Addison's disease is caused by the HYPOSECRETION of ACTH that leads to ADRENAL FAILURE.
Discussion