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The two components of starch are:

1. Amylose 

2. Amylopectin

Amylose is a straight chain polymer of α – D – (+) glucose, while amylopectin is a branched chain polymer of α – D – glucose.

DNA contains four bases, viz; adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T). RNA also contain four bases, first three bases are same as in DNA but the fourth one is uracil(U).

Vitamins

1. Vitamin B₁ 

2. Vitamin C 

Sources 

1. Yeast. milk, vegetables. 

2. Citrus fruits, amla and green leafy vegetables. 

Deficiency Diseases 

1. Ben – ben 

2. Scurvy (bleeding gums)

Enzyme oxidoreductase.

Vitamins 

1. Vitamin A 

2. Vitamin D

Sources 

1. Fish, liver oil, carrot 

2. Sunlight, milk, egg yolk 

Deficiency Diseases 

1. Night blindness 

2. Rickets and osteomalacia

The linkage joining amino acids Peptide bond.

• When glucose is heated with HI, n Hexane is formed.
• When glucose is treated with bromine water, it is oxidised to gluconic acid.
• Glucose is oxidised by HNO₃ to saccharic acid.

1. Sugar that is present in DNA and RNA:

• DNA – β-D-2-deoxyribose
• RNA – β-D-ribose

2.  

1. Fat soluble – Vitamins A, D, E and K. Water soluble – Vitamins B and C

2. Night blindness 

3. Vitamin D

(i) Messenger RNA (m-RNA) 

(ii) Transfer RNA (t-RNA) 

(iii) Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)

1. Inter molecular hydrogen bonding between -NH group of each amino acid and carbonyl group of an adjacent turn of the helix. 

2. The repeating structural units of nucleic acids are called nucleotides.

• Pentose sugar + Base → nucleoside 
• Nucleoside + Phosphoric acid → nucleotide

1. Secondary metabolites are small organic molecules produced by organisms that are not essential for their growth, development and reproduction. 

2. Several types of bacteria, fungi and plants produce secondary metabolites.

3. Secondary metabolites can be classified on the basis of chemical structure (e.g. SMs containing rings, sugar), composition (with or without nitrogen), their solubility in various solvents, or the pathway by which they are synthesized (e.g. phenylpropanoid produces tannins). 

4. A simple way of classifying secondary metabolites includes three main groups such as: 

• Terpenes: Made from mevalonic acid that is composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen 
• Phenolics: Made from simple sugars containing benzene rings, hydrogen and oxygen. 
• Nitrogen-containing compounds: Extremely diverse class may also contain sulphur.

The factors affecting the enzyme activity are as follows: 

1. Concentration of substrate: 

a. Increase in the substrate concentration gradually increases the velocity of enzyme activity within the limited range of substrate levels. 

b. A rectangular hyperbola is obtained when velocity is plotted against the substrate concentration. 

c. Three distinct phases (A, B and C) of the reaction are observed in the graph. Where V = Measured velocity, V_max = Maximum velocity, S = Substrate concentration, K_m = Michaelis-Menten constant. 

d. K_m or the Michaelis-Menten constant is defined as the substrate concentration (expressed in moles/lit) to produce half of maximum velocity in an enzyme catalyzed reaction. 

e. It indicates that half of the enzyme molecules (i.e. 50%) are bound with the substrate molecules when the substrate concentration equals the Km value. 

f. K_m value is a constant and a characteristic feature of a given enzyme. 

g. It is a representative for measuring the strength of ES complex. 

h. A low K value indicates a strong affinity between enzyme and substrate, whereas a high Km value reflects a weak affinity between them. 

i. For majority of enzymes, the K_m values are in the range of 10_-5 to 10_-2 moles. 

2. Enzyme Concentration: 

a. The rate of an enzymatic reaction is directly proportional to the concentration of the substrate. 

b. The rate of reaction is also directly proportional to the square root of the concentration of enzymes. 

c. It means that the rate of reaction also increases with the increasing concentration of enzyme and the rate of reaction can also decrease by decreasing the concentration of enzyme. 

3. Temperature: 

a. The temperature at which the enzymes show maximum activity is called Optimum temperature. 

b. The rate of chemical reaction is increased by a rise in temperature but this is true only over a limited range of temperature. 

c. Enzymes rapidly denature at temperature above 40°C. 

d. The activity of enzymes is reduced at low temperature. 

e. The enzymatic reaction occurs best at or around 37°C which is the average normal body temperature in homeotherms. 

4. Effect of pH: 

a. The pH at which an enzyme catalyzes the reaction at the maximum rate is known as optimum pH. 

b. The enzyme cannot perform its function beyond the range of its pH value. 

5. Other substances: 

a. The enzyme action is also increased or decreased in the presence of some other substances such as co-enzymes, activators and inhibitors. 

b. Most of the enzymes are combination of a co-enzyme and an apo-enzyme. 

c. Activators are the inorganic substances which increase the enzyme activity. 

d. Inhibitor is the substance which reduces the enzyme activity.

1. Drugs developed from secondary metabolites have been used to treat infectious diseases, cancer, hypertension and inflammation. 

2. Morphine, the first alkaloid isolated from Papaver somniferum is used as pain reliver and cough suppressant. 

3. Secondary metabolites like alkaloids, nicotine, cocaine and the terpenes, cannabinol are widely used for recreation and stimulation.

4. Flavours of secondary metabolites improve our food preferences.

5. Tannins are added to wines and chocolate for improving astringency. 

6. Since most secondary metabolites have antibiotic property, they are also used as food preservatives. 

7. Glucosinolates is a secondary metabolite which is naturally present in cabbage imparts a characteristic flavour and aroma because of nitrogen and sulphur-containing chemicals. It also offers protection to these plants from many pests.

1. Metabolic pool is the reservoir of biomolecules in the cell on which enzymes can act to produce useful products as per the need of the cell. 

2. The concept of metabolic pool is significant in cell biology because it allows one type of molecule to change into another type E.g. Carbohydrates can be converted to fats and vice-versa.

1. Metabolism is the sum of the chemical reactions that take place within each cell of a living organism and provide energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new’ organic material. 

2. Metabolic pool in the cell is formed due to glycolysis and Krebs cycle. 

3. The catabolic chemical reaction of glycolysis and Krebs cycle provides ATP and biomolecules. These biomolecules form the metabolic pool of the cell. 

4. These biomolecules can be utilized for synthesis of many important cellular components. 

5. The metabolites can be added or withdrawn from the pool according to the need of the cell.

1. Metabolic pool is the reservoir of biomolecules in the cell on which enzymes can act to produce useful products as per the need of the cell. 

2. The concept of metabolic pool is significant in cell biology because it allows one type of molecule to change into another type E.g. Carbohydrates can be converted to fats and vice-versa.

1. Metabolism is the sum of the chemical reactions that take place within each cell of a living organism and provide energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new’ organic material. 

2. Metabolic pool in the cell is formed due to glycolysis and Krebs cycle. 

3. The catabolic chemical reaction of glycolysis and Krebs cycle provides ATP and biomolecules. These biomolecules form the metabolic pool of the cell. 

4. These biomolecules can be utilized for synthesis of many important cellular components. 

5. The metabolites can be added or withdrawn from the pool according to the need of the cell.

1. Benedict’s reagent 

2. Sucrose 

3. Metabolism

A purine always pairs with pyrimidine. Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine. 

Therefore, as per the given data If cytosine = 14% then guanine = 14%. 

According to Chargaff s rule, 

(C+G) = 14+ 14 = 28% 

Therefore, (A+T) = 72% 

So, A= 36%, T= 36%, G = 14%.