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In most cases, pollution is caused by the human activity. Other species and some abiotic factors however can also POLLUTE an ecosystem. For example, the red tide is created by proliferation of some algae and the VOLCANO dust is a CONSEQUENCE of the internal activity of the planet.

In most cases, pollution is caused by the human activity. Other species and some abiotic factors however can also pollute an ecosystem. For example, the red tide is created by proliferation of some algae and the volcano dust is a consequence of the internal activity of the planet.

Pollution is the contamination of an ecosystem by FACTORS that are harmful for the EQUILIBRIUM of its biotic or ABIOTIC CONSTITUENTS.

Pollution is the contamination of an ecosystem by factors that are harmful for the equilibrium of its biotic or abiotic constituents.

The FACTORS that LIMIT the growth of a population can be divided into biotic factors and abiotic factors. The main abiotic limiting factors are availability of water and light, availability of shelter. The main limiting biotic factors are population density and inharmonious (negative) ecological INTERACTIONS (COMPETITION, predatism, PARASITISM, ammensalism).

The factors that limit the growth of a population can be divided into biotic factors and abiotic factors. The main abiotic limiting factors are availability of water and light, availability of shelter. The main limiting biotic factors are population density and inharmonious (negative) ecological interactions (competition, predatism, parasitism, ammensalism).

Environmental resistance is the ACTION of limiting abiotic and biotic factors that disallow the growth of a population, as it would grow according to its biotic potential. Actually, each ECOSYSTEM is ABLE to sustain a limited number of individuals of a GIVEN SPECIES.

The environmental resistance is an important concept of population ecology.

Environmental resistance is the action of limiting abiotic and biotic factors that disallow the growth of a population, as it would grow according to its biotic potential. Actually, each ecosystem is able to sustain a limited number of individuals of a given species.

The environmental resistance is an important concept of population ecology.

Examples of MIGRATORY animals are: SOUTHERN right whales from Antarctica, that procreate in the Brazilian coast; migratory SALMONS that are BORN in the river, go to the sea and return to the river to reproduce and die; migratory birds from cold regions that spend the winter in TROPICAL regions; etc.

Examples of migratory animals are: southern right whales from Antarctica, that procreate in the Brazilian coast; migratory salmons that are born in the river, go to the sea and return to the river to reproduce and die; migratory birds from cold regions that spend the winter in tropical regions; etc.

The MAIN FACTORS that make populations grow are births and IMMIGRATION. The main factors that make populations decrease are DEATHS and EMIGRATION.

The main factors that make populations grow are births and immigration. The main factors that make populations decrease are deaths and emigration.

POPULATION growth rate (PGR) is the PERCENT variation between the NUMBERS of individuals in a population in two different TIMES. Therefore, the population growth rate can be positive or negative.

Population growth rate (PGR) is the percent variation between the numbers of individuals in a population in two different times. Therefore, the population growth rate can be positive or negative.

POPULATION density is the relation between the number of individuals of a population and the area or volume they occupy. For EXAMPLE, in 2001 the human population density of the United States (according to the WORLD Bank) was 29,71 INHABITANTS per square kilometer and China had a population density of 135,41 humans per square kilometer.

Population density is the relation between the number of individuals of a population and the area or volume they occupy. For example, in 2001 the human population density of the United States (according to the World Bank) was 29,71 inhabitants per square kilometer and China had a population density of 135,41 humans per square kilometer.

In BIOLOGY population is a SET of INDIVIDUALS of the same species LIVING in a given place and in a given TIME.

In Biology population is a set of individuals of the same species living in a given place and in a given time.

Biodiversity, the number of living beings, and the biomass of an ecosystem tend to increase as the SUCCESSION PROGRESSES and they stabilize when the climax STAGE is reached.

At the initial stage of the succession the use of carbon dioxide and the fixation of carbon into the biomass are high, since the total number of living beings in the ecosystem is INCREASING. At the climax stage, the use of carbon dioxide by photosynthesis equals the production by cellular respiration and the fixation of carbon into the biomass tends to zero.

Biodiversity, the number of living beings, and the biomass of an ecosystem tend to increase as the succession progresses and they stabilize when the climax stage is reached.

At the initial stage of the succession the use of carbon dioxide and the fixation of carbon into the biomass are high, since the total number of living beings in the ecosystem is increasing. At the climax stage, the use of carbon dioxide by photosynthesis equals the production by cellular respiration and the fixation of carbon into the biomass tends to zero.

Primary ecological succession is the changing SEQUENCE of communities from the first biological occupation of a place where previously there were no living beings. For example, the colonization and the following succession of communities are in a bare rock.

Secondary ecological succession is the changing sequence of communities from the substitution of a community by a new one in a given place. For example, the ecological succession from the INVASION of plants and animals are in an abandoned CROP or LAND.

Primary ecological succession is the changing sequence of communities from the first biological occupation of a place where previously there were no living beings. For example, the colonization and the following succession of communities are in a bare rock.

Secondary ecological succession is the changing sequence of communities from the substitution of a community by a new one in a given place. For example, the ecological succession from the invasion of plants and animals are in an abandoned crop or land.

Pioneer species are those first species that colonize places where PREVIOUSLY there were no living beings, like, for example, algae thatcolonize bare rocks. In general, pioneers species are autotrophs or maintain harmonious ecological interaction with autotrophic beings (like autotrophic bacteria, herbaceous plants, LICHENS).

The pioneer community is FORMED of species able to survive under HOSTILE environments. The presence of these species modifies the microenvironment generating changes in abiotic and biotic factors of the ecosystem undergoing formation. Therefore, they OPEN way to other species to establish in the place by the creation of new potential ecological niches.

Pioneer species are those first species that colonize places where previously there were no living beings, like, for example, algae thatcolonize bare rocks. In general, pioneers species are autotrophs or maintain harmonious ecological interaction with autotrophic beings (like autotrophic bacteria, herbaceous plants, lichens).

The pioneer community is formed of species able to survive under hostile environments. The presence of these species modifies the microenvironment generating changes in abiotic and biotic factors of the ecosystem undergoing formation. Therefore, they open way to other species to establish in the place by the creation of new potential ecological niches.

Ecological SUCCESSION is the CHANGING sequence of communities that live in a ECOSYSTEM during a given time PERIOD.

Ecological succession is the changing sequence of communities that live in a ecosystem during a given time period.

Ammensalism is the ECOLOGICAL interaction in which an individual harms other without obtaining benefit. Ammensalism is an inharmonious (negative) ecological interaction since one participant is harmed.

(Sometimes it is wrongly SAID that ammensalism is a form of ecological interaction in which an organism releases in the ENVIRONMENT substances that harm another species; this situation is indeed an example of ammensalims but the concept is not RESTRICTED to it.)

One of the best examples of ammensalism is the one established between humans and other species under extinction due to human actions like habitat devastation by fires, ecological accidents, leisure HUNTING, etc. Other example is the red tide, proliferation of algae that by intoxication can lead to death of fishes and other animals.

Ammensalism is the ecological interaction in which an individual harms other without obtaining benefit. Ammensalism is an inharmonious (negative) ecological interaction since one participant is harmed.

(Sometimes it is wrongly said that ammensalism is a form of ecological interaction in which an organism releases in the environment substances that harm another species; this situation is indeed an example of ammensalims but the concept is not restricted to it.)

One of the best examples of ammensalism is the one established between humans and other species under extinction due to human actions like habitat devastation by fires, ecological accidents, leisure hunting, etc. Other example is the red tide, proliferation of algae that by intoxication can lead to death of fishes and other animals.

Herbivorism is the FORM of predatism in which first order consumers feed from producers (PLANTS or algae). For EXAMPLE, birds and FRUITS, humans and EATABLE vegetable, etc. (There are proposals to consider the herbivorism of leaves a form of parasitism and the herbivorism of entire plants and seeds a form of predatism).

Herbivorism is the form of predatism in which first order consumers feed from producers (plants or algae). For example, birds and fruits, humans and eatable vegetable, etc. (There are proposals to consider the herbivorism of leaves a form of parasitism and the herbivorism of entire plants and seeds a form of predatism).

Predatism is the ECOLOGICAL INTERACTION in which one individual mutilates or kills other to get food. Predatism is an INHARMONIOUS (NEGATIVE) ecological interaction since one participant is harmed.

Predatism is the ecological interaction in which one individual mutilates or kills other to get food. Predatism is an inharmonious (negative) ecological interaction since one participant is harmed.

Classical examples are the parasites of HUMANS (host), like the trypanosome that causes Chagas’ disease, the HIV virus (AIDS), the BACTERIA that causes tuberculosis, the schistosome that causes schistosomiasis, the hookworms, etc. Other examples are tree (host) and PARASITIC helminths (parasite), dog (host) and LICE (parasite), cattle (host) and tick (parasite), etc.

Classical examples are the parasites of humans (host), like the trypanosome that causes Chagas’ disease, the HIV virus (AIDS), the bacteria that causes tuberculosis, the schistosome that causes schistosomiasis, the hookworms, etc. Other examples are tree (host) and parasitic helminths (parasite), dog (host) and lice (parasite), cattle (host) and tick (parasite), etc.

Parasitism is the ecological interaction in which a being lives at the expense of other. The parasite often does not CAUSE immediate death of the host since it needs the host alive to SURVIVE.

Parasitism is an INHARMONIOUS (negative) interspecific ecological interaction, since although one PARTICIPANT BENEFIT the other is harmed.

Parasitism is the ecological interaction in which a being lives at the expense of other. The parasite often does not cause immediate death of the host since it needs the host alive to survive.

Parasitism is an inharmonious (negative) interspecific ecological interaction, since although one participant benefit the other is harmed.

EXAMPLES of interspecific COMPETITION are the DISPUTE among vultures, worms, FLIES, and microorganisms for carrions and the competition between SNAKES and eagles for rodents.

Examples of interspecific competition are the dispute among vultures, worms, flies, and microorganisms for carrions and the competition between snakes and eagles for rodents.

COMMENSALISM may involve obtention of FOOD (for example, the innocuous BACTERIA of the human guts), SHELTER or support (EPIPHYTES on trees) and transportation (pollen carried by insects or birds). The commensalism that involves obtention of shelter is also called inquilinism.

Commensalism may involve obtention of food (for example, the innocuous bacteria of the human guts), shelter or support (epiphytes on trees) and transportation (pollen carried by insects or birds). The commensalism that involves obtention of shelter is also called inquilinism.

Commensalism is the ecological interaction in which one individual benefit while the other is not benefited NEITHER HARMED.

Commensalism is a harmonious (positive) ecological interaction, since none of the participants is harmed. Example of commensalism are the numerous bacteria that LIVE in the skin and in the digestive TUBE of humans without being pathogenic neither beneficial. They are innocuous bacteria LIVING in commensalism with humans.

Commensalism is the ecological interaction in which one individual benefit while the other is not benefited neither harmed.

Commensalism is a harmonious (positive) ecological interaction, since none of the participants is harmed. Example of commensalism are the numerous bacteria that live in the skin and in the digestive tube of humans without being pathogenic neither beneficial. They are innocuous bacteria living in commensalism with humans.

Mutualism is the ecological interaction in which both participants benefit and that is obligatory for their SURVIVAL. Mutualism is a harmonious (positive) ecological interaction. Mutualism is also known as symbiosis. Examples of mutualism are: the association between microorganisms that digest cellulose and the ruminants or insects WITHIN which they live; the lichens, formed by algae or cyanobacteria that make organic material for the fungi and absorb WATER with their help; nitrifying bacteria of the genus Rhizobium that associated to LEGUMINOUS offer nitrogen to these plants.

Mutualism is the ecological interaction in which both participants benefit and that is obligatory for their survival. Mutualism is a harmonious (positive) ecological interaction. Mutualism is also known as symbiosis. Examples of mutualism are: the association between microorganisms that digest cellulose and the ruminants or insects within which they live; the lichens, formed by algae or cyanobacteria that make organic material for the fungi and absorb water with their help; nitrifying bacteria of the genus Rhizobium that associated to leguminous offer nitrogen to these plants.

Protocooperation is the ecological interaction in which both participants benefit and that is not OBLIGATORY for their survival.

Protocooperation is a harmonious (positive) interspecific ecological interaction. EXAMPLES of protocooperation are: the action of the spurwinged plover that using its beak eats residuals from crocodile teeth; the removal of ectoparasites from the back of bovines by some birds that eat the parasites; the hermit crab that LIVE inside shells over which sea ANEMONES live (these offer protection to the crab and gain mobility to obtain food).

Protocooperation is the ecological interaction in which both participants benefit and that is not obligatory for their survival.

Protocooperation is a harmonious (positive) interspecific ecological interaction. Examples of protocooperation are: the action of the spurwinged plover that using its beak eats residuals from crocodile teeth; the removal of ectoparasites from the back of bovines by some birds that eat the parasites; the hermit crab that live inside shells over which sea anemones live (these offer protection to the crab and gain mobility to obtain food).

The main harmonious INTERSPECIFIC ECOLOGICAL interactions are protocooperation, MUTUALISM and commensalism. The main INHARMONIOUS interspecific ecological interactions are interspecific competition, PARASITISM, predatism and ammensalism.

The main harmonious interspecific ecological interactions are protocooperation, mutualism and commensalism. The main inharmonious interspecific ecological interactions are interspecific competition, parasitism, predatism and ammensalism.

In cannibalism an individual EAT other of the same species (occurs in some INSECTS and ARACHNIDS). Since it is an interaction between beings of the same species and at least ONE of them is harmed (the other is benefited) the CLASSIFICATION as inharmonious intraspecific ecological interaction is justified.

In cannibalism an individual eat other of the same species (occurs in some insects and arachnids). Since it is an interaction between beings of the same species and at least one of them is harmed (the other is benefited) the classification as inharmonious intraspecific ecological interaction is justified.

INTRASPECIFIC competition practically OCCURS in all SPECIES, for EXAMPLE, the competition of humans for a JOB.

Intraspecific competition practically occurs in all species, for example, the competition of humans for a job.

COMPETITION is the ecological interaction in which the individuals explore the same ecological niche or their ecological niches partially COINCIDE and therefore competition for the same environmental RESOURCES takes place.

Competition is HARMFUL for all participating beings and THUS it is classified as an inharmonious (negative) ecological interaction.

Competition is the ecological interaction in which the individuals explore the same ecological niche or their ecological niches partially coincide and therefore competition for the same environmental resources takes place.

Competition is harmful for all participating beings and thus it is classified as an inharmonious (negative) ecological interaction.

Colonies are functional integrated aggregates formed by individuals of the same species. Colonies are OFTEN confounded with a single INDIVIDUAL. EXAMPLES are the coral reefs, bythewind sailors, and filamentous algae.

Societies are interactions for LABOR DIVISION and collaboration among individuals of the same species. Human societies are examples of ecological societies; other species, like bees, ants, termites, wolves and dolphins form societies.

Colonies are functional integrated aggregates formed by individuals of the same species. Colonies are often confounded with a single individual. Examples are the coral reefs, bythewind sailors, and filamentous algae.

Societies are interactions for labor division and collaboration among individuals of the same species. Human societies are examples of ecological societies; other species, like bees, ants, termites, wolves and dolphins form societies.

The main harmonious intraspecific ECOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS are COLONIES and societies. The main INHARMONIOUS intraspecific ecological interactions are intraspecific competition and cannibalism.

The main harmonious intraspecific ecological interactions are colonies and societies. The main inharmonious intraspecific ecological interactions are intraspecific competition and cannibalism.

Harmonious, or POSITIVE, ECOLOGICAL interaction is that in which NONE of the PARTICIPATING beings is harmed.

Harmonious, or positive, ecological interaction is that in which none of the participating beings is harmed.

Intraspecific ecological interactions are those between INDIVIDUALS of the same species. INTERSPECIFIC ecological interactions are ecological interactions between individuals of DIFFERENT species.

Intraspecific ecological interactions are those between individuals of the same species. Interspecific ecological interactions are ecological interactions between individuals of different species.

ECOLOGICAL interactions are classified as intraspecific or interspecific interactions and as HARMONIOUS or INHARMONIOUS interactions.

Ecological interactions are classified as intraspecific or interspecific interactions and as harmonious or inharmonious interactions.

INHARMONIOUS, or NEGATIVE, ecological interaction is that in which at LEAST ONE of the participating BEINGS is harmed.

Inharmonious, or negative, ecological interaction is that in which at least one of the participating beings is harmed.

The biggest dangers to the biological diversity today are fruits of the human action. The MAIN of them is the DESTRUCTION of habitats caused by the GROWTH of the cities, deforestation, pollution, and fires. The second is the invasion of ecosystems by nonnative species introduced by humans; these species change the equilibrium of ecosystems causing harm. Other BIG dangers are the predatory hunting and fishing and the global WARMING.

The biggest dangers to the biological diversity today are fruits of the human action. The main of them is the destruction of habitats caused by the growth of the cities, deforestation, pollution, and fires. The second is the invasion of ecosystems by nonnative species introduced by humans; these species change the equilibrium of ecosystems causing harm. Other big dangers are the predatory hunting and fishing and the global warming.

Very biodiverse areas present ENORMOUS economic potential. They can be source of raw material for the RESEARCH and production of medicines, cosmetics, CHEMICAL products, and food. They are depository of genetic wealth that can be EXPLORED by biotechnology.

They are source of species for agriculture. They can ALSO be explored by the ecological tourism.

Very biodiverse areas present enormous economic potential. They can be source of raw material for the research and production of medicines, cosmetics, chemical products, and food. They are depository of genetic wealth that can be explored by biotechnology.

They are source of species for agriculture. They can also be explored by the ecological tourism.

Monoculture means that in a large AREA a SINGLE crop (only one species of plant) is cultivated. Therefore, monoculture does not contribute to the FORMATION of a community with GREAT variety of species in the area. SINCE there is only a single type of producer the types of consumers that can live in the area are also restricted.

Monoculture means that in a large area a single crop (only one species of plant) is cultivated. Therefore, monoculture does not contribute to the formation of a community with great variety of species in the area. Since there is only a single type of producer the types of consumers that can live in the area are also restricted.

The NATURAL soil of the Amazon Rainforest is not too FERTILE but it is enriched by the vegetal covering made of leaves and branches that fall from the trees. Deforestation reduces this enrichment. In deforestation zones, the rain falls directly on the ground causing erosion, “WASHING” large areas (leaching) and contributing to make the soil even less fertile. Besides that, the deforestation disallows the RECYCLING of essential NUTRIENTS for plants, like nitrogen. In this manner, those regions and their neighboring regions undergo desertification.

The natural soil of the Amazon Rainforest is not too fertile but it is enriched by the vegetal covering made of leaves and branches that fall from the trees. Deforestation reduces this enrichment. In deforestation zones, the rain falls directly on the ground causing erosion, “washing” large areas (leaching) and contributing to make the soil even less fertile. Besides that, the deforestation disallows the recycling of essential nutrients for plants, like nitrogen. In this manner, those regions and their neighboring regions undergo desertification.

Biological DIVERSITY is the variety of species of living BEINGS of an ecosystem. In ecosystems, more biodiverse, like TROPICAL forests, a great variety of plants, MICROORGANISMS, and ANIMALS live; in ecosystems less biodiverse, like deserts, there are less variety of living beings.

Biological diversity is the variety of species of living beings of an ecosystem. In ecosystems, more biodiverse, like tropical forests, a great variety of plants, microorganisms, and animals live; in ecosystems less biodiverse, like deserts, there are less variety of living beings.

Leguminous crop rotation and other crop rotations are used in agriculture because in these plants MANY bacteria important for the nitrogen cycle live. The leguminous crop rotation (or conjointly with the main crop) HELPS the soil to become rich in nitrates that then are ABSORBED by the plants.

Green manure, the covering of the soil with GRASS and leguminous, is a way to improve the fixation of nitrogen and it is an option to avoid chemical FERTILIZERS.

Leguminous crop rotation and other crop rotations are used in agriculture because in these plants many bacteria important for the nitrogen cycle live. The leguminous crop rotation (or conjointly with the main crop) helps the soil to become rich in nitrates that then are absorbed by the plants.

Green manure, the covering of the soil with grass and leguminous, is a way to improve the fixation of nitrogen and it is an option to avoid chemical fertilizers.

The most abundant nitrogencontaining molecule FOUND in NATURE is MOLECULAR nitrogen (N2). The air is 80% constituted of molecular nitrogen.

The most abundant nitrogencontaining molecule found in nature is molecular nitrogen (N2). The air is 80% constituted of molecular nitrogen.

Fossil fuels, like OIL, gas, and coal, form when organic material is preserved from the COMPLETE action of decomposers, generally buried deep and under pressure during millions of years. Under such conditions, the organic material transforms into hydrocarbon fuels.

Fossil fuels are natural reservatory of carbon. When OXYGEN is present, these fuels can be burned and carbon DIOXIDE and carbon monoxide are released to the atmosphere.

Fossil fuels, like oil, gas, and coal, form when organic material is preserved from the complete action of decomposers, generally buried deep and under pressure during millions of years. Under such conditions, the organic material transforms into hydrocarbon fuels.

Fossil fuels are natural reservatory of carbon. When oxygen is present, these fuels can be burned and carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are released to the atmosphere.

CARBON DIOXIDE is made by PRODUCERS and CONSUMERS through CELLULAR respiration.

Carbon dioxide is made by producers and consumers through cellular respiration.

The MAIN BIOLOGICAL PROCESS that consumes CARBON dioxide is PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

The main biological process that consumes carbon dioxide is photosynthesis.

The SUN can be considered the motor of the water cycle because upon its energy the transformation of LIQUID water into water VAPOR depends. Therefore, the sun is the energy SOURCE that makes water to circulate in nature.

The sun can be considered the motor of the water cycle because upon its energy the transformation of liquid water into water vapor depends. Therefore, the sun is the energy source that makes water to circulate in nature.

The water cycle represents the CIRCULATION and recycling of water in NATURE.

Liquid water on the planet surface is heated by the sun and turns into water vapor that gains the atmosphere. In the atmosphere large volumes of water vapor, form clouds that when cooled precipitate liquid water as rain. Therefore, water comes back to the planet surface and the cycle is completed. As possible steps of the cycle, water may still be stored in subterranean reservatory or under the form of ice in mountains and oceans and it may also be used in the metabolism of living beings, INCORPORATED into the body of the individuals or excreted through urine, FECES, and TRANSPIRATION.

The water cycle represents the circulation and recycling of water in nature.

Liquid water on the planet surface is heated by the sun and turns into water vapor that gains the atmosphere. In the atmosphere large volumes of water vapor, form clouds that when cooled precipitate liquid water as rain. Therefore, water comes back to the planet surface and the cycle is completed. As possible steps of the cycle, water may still be stored in subterranean reservatory or under the form of ice in mountains and oceans and it may also be used in the metabolism of living beings, incorporated into the body of the individuals or excreted through urine, feces, and transpiration.

Water is the main solvent of the living beings and it is necessary practically for all biochemical reactions, including as reagent of photosynthesis. Many properties of water are very important for life.

Carbon is the main chemical element of ORGANIC molecules; carbon dioxide is also reagent of photosynthesis and product of the energetic METABOLISM of the living beings.

Nitrogen is a fundamental chemical element of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins that in their TURN are the main functional molecules of the living beings; nitrogen is also part of the nucleic acid molecules, the basis of reproduction, heredity, and protein SYNTHESIS.

Water is the main solvent of the living beings and it is necessary practically for all biochemical reactions, including as reagent of photosynthesis. Many properties of water are very important for life.

Carbon is the main chemical element of organic molecules; carbon dioxide is also reagent of photosynthesis and product of the energetic metabolism of the living beings.

Nitrogen is a fundamental chemical element of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins that in their turn are the main functional molecules of the living beings; nitrogen is also part of the nucleic acid molecules, the basis of reproduction, heredity, and protein synthesis.

Biogeochemical CYCLES are representations of the circulation and recycling of matter in nature.

The main biogeochemical cycles STUDIED in Ecology are the water cycle, the CARBON cycle, and the NITROGEN cycle.

Biogeochemical cycles are representations of the circulation and recycling of matter in nature.

The main biogeochemical cycles studied in Ecology are the water cycle, the carbon cycle, and the nitrogen cycle.

Net primary production is the gross primary productivity less the organic material consumed as energy source in the metabolism of the producers: NPP = GPP – (organic material SPENT in aerobic RESPIRATION). It represents the organic material available in the first tropic LEVEL.

The BASE of the energy pyramids MUST represent the NPP and not the GPP since the idea of these pyramids is to show the available energy in each trophic level of the food chain.

Net primary production is the gross primary productivity less the organic material consumed as energy source in the metabolism of the producers: NPP = GPP – (organic material spent in aerobic respiration). It represents the organic material available in the first tropic level.

The base of the energy pyramids must represent the NPP and not the GPP since the idea of these pyramids is to show the available energy in each trophic level of the food chain.

Part of the organic material synthesized by the producers is CONSUMED as energy source for the metabolism of the own producer individual. Other part is incorporated (into the body) and become AVAILABLE to heterotrophic BEINGS of the ecosystem. In each following tropic level part of the organic material is USED in the metabolism of the individuals of the level, other part is eliminated as waste and only a fraction is incorporated and become available as food for the following level.

Part of the organic material synthesized by the producers is consumed as energy source for the metabolism of the own producer individual. Other part is incorporated (into the body) and become available to heterotrophic beings of the ecosystem. In each following tropic level part of the organic material is used in the metabolism of the individuals of the level, other part is eliminated as waste and only a fraction is incorporated and become available as food for the following level.

Mainly water and light, but ALSO mineral salts, TEMPERATURE, and carbon dioxide are factors that interfere with the gross primary PRODUCTIVITY.

Mainly water and light, but also mineral salts, temperature, and carbon dioxide are factors that interfere with the gross primary productivity.