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(C) 1, 4, 3, 2

The squamous epithelial cells in Bowman’s capsule are Podocytes

d. calcium oxalate

Temporary method for ESRD persons is Dialysis (Artificial kidney). Permanent method is transplantation of kidney.

Dialysis:

1. Blood is taken out from the main artery, mixed with an anticoagulant, such as heparin and then pumped in to dialyzer. 

2. In dialyzer blood flows through cellophane tubes and these tubes are embeded in the dialysing fluid. 

3. The membrane separates the blood flowing inside the tube and dialysing fluid (same as plasma without nitrogenous waste).

Kidney transplantation:

1. A functioning kidney is used in transplantation from a donor preferably a close relative.

2. The kidney that is received by a recipient must be a good match to his body, to minimise the chances of rejection by the immune system of the recipient. 

3. Nowadays the process of organ donation helps a lot for kidney failure patients.

The transplanted kidney is fixed in the body of patient inside the lower abdomen.

Kidney transplantation involves placing a healthy kidney into the body where it can perform all of the functions that a failing kidney cannot. The new kidney is placed on the lower right or left side of the abdomen where it is surgically connected to nearby blood vessels. Placing the kidney in this position allows it to be easily connected to blood vessels and the bladder. The vein and the artery of the new kidney are attached to the body’s vein and artery. The new kidney’s ureter is attached to the body’s bladder to allow urine to pass out of the body. 

Gum, Rubber, Coffee are the examples for secondary metabolites which we use in our daily life.

1. What do we call the complete and irreversible kidney failure? 

2. What happen if kidney stops working completely? 

3. What is uremia? 

4. Is there any solution to this problem?

1. Latex used in rubber and Tannins used in Leather Industry.

2. Latex – Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber Plant) Tannins – Cassia, Acacia.

1. When does kidney fail? 

2. What are the symptoms of kidney failure? 

3. What precautions can we take to prevent failure of kidney?

4. Which alternative method can we adopt if kidney fails?

Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining an internal concentration of salt and water in the body of fishes.

i. Freshwater fishes: 

The salt concentration inside the body of freshwater fishes is higher than their surrounding water. Due to this, water enters the body due to osmosis. 

If the flow of water into the body is not regulated. fishes would swell and get bigger. To compensate this, the kidneys produce a large amount of urine, 

Excretion of large amounts of urine regulates the level of water in the body hut results in the loss of salts. 

Thus, in order to maintain a sufficient salt level, special cells in the gills (chloride cells) take tip ions from the water, which are then directly transported into the blood.

ii. Marine fishes: 

Since the salt content in blood of marine fishes is much lower than that of seawater, they constantly tend to lose water and build up salt.

To replace the water loss, they continually need to drink seawater. 

Since their small kidney can only excrete a relatively small amount of urine, salt is additionally excreted through gills, where chloride cells work in reverse as in freshwater fishes.

(b) diabetes insipidus

The under secretion of ADH leads to Diabetes insipidus.

Distal convoluted tubule.

Reabsorption of Bicarbonate ions regulates the pH of blood.

The major function of Henle’s loop is to concentrate Na⁺ and Cl^- . The longer the Henle’s loop, the more concentrated is the urine that is above the osmotic concentration of plasma.

Antidiuretic hormone/ vasopressin

Antidiuretic hormone increases reabsorption of water in the kidney tubules. It is produced in the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. When there is excess loss of fluid from the body or increase in the blood pressure, ADH is secreted more. When there is no loss of fluid from the body, it is secreted less.

The process of release of urine from the bladder is called Micturition.

The cardiac atrial cells secrete atrial natriuretic peptide or factor. It travels to the kidney and increases blood flow to the glomerulus. It acts as vasodilator on the afferent arteriole and vasoconstrictor on efferent arteriole. It decreases aldosterone release for the adrenal cortex and decreases the release of renin Angiotensin-II

Health of the heart depends on the normal blood pressure and hence evolution might have preserved atrial natriuretic factor which acts upon the renal function.

Renin- Angiotensin stimulates Na⁺ reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate. This stimulates Adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone that causes reabsorption of Na ⁺, K⁺ excretion and absorption of water.

This reduces loss of water into the urine. This maintains the volume of blood. An increase in blood volume increases central venous pressure. This increases right atrial pressure, right ventricular end – diastolic pressure and volume. This increases ventricular stroke volume and cardiac output and arterial blood pressure.

The urine formed is a yellow coloured watery fluid which is slightly acidic in nature (pH 6.0).

The yellow colour of the urine is due to the presence of a pigment Urochrome.

Aldosterone is produced by the Adrenal cortex. It increases reabsorption of sodium and water by distal convoluted tubule and increased secretion of potassium. Hence, it maintains blood volume, blood pressure and urine output.

The yellow colour of the urine is due to the presence of pigment urochrome.

The presence of ketone bodies in the urine is called Ketonuria.

(c) Glomerulonephritis

Renal stones can be removed by techniques like Pyleothotomy or lithotripsy.

c. There will be no micturition

Artificial filtering of blood to remove wastes by using dialysis machine is known as haemodialysis.

In dialysis, anticoagulant used to blood, taken from main artery in order to prevent the clotting of blood is Heparin

(c) Kidney transplantation

Answer is (B) Artery

Through haemodialysis, Urea can be removed from the blood.

1. Circulatory system delivers oxygen, nutrients, water, hormones and other essential to each cell of the body. 

2. And it also transports all the carbon dioxide and other waste products of the cells to the lungs to be expired (exhaled) or to the kidneys to be excreted. 

3. The excretory system is closely related to the circulatory system by virtue of the process of cleansing the blood of waste, removing excess fluids and generally keeping other fluids in balance. 

4. Excretory system releases hormones to elevate blood pressure and accelerate red blood cell production. 

5. Kidney stimulates the red blood cell production by erythropoetin and regulates blood pressure with the secretion of renin.

B) Collection of urine

(C) Vasopressin

d. uricotelic

Guttation: The secretion of droplets of water from the pores of plants.

Contradilve vacuoles: It is a subcellular structure involved in osmoregulation. It’s are found predominantly in protists and in unicellular algae.

C) Osmoregulation

Answer is (D) A & C

1. Regulation of body temperature is one of the functions of skin. 

2. To maintain the body temperature, skin produces sweat. 

3. In cold countries environment is very cool. So there is no production of sweat. 

4. In these conditions there will be more pressure on other excretory organs.

Answer is (A) c, a, b

Answer is (D) (iv) only

i. Kidney: 

A pair of bean shaped kidneys are present on either side of the backbone from 12^th thoracic to 3^rd lumbar vertebra. Kidneys are present behind peritoneum. Hence are called retroperitoneal. Dimensions of each kidney are 10 × 5 × 4 cms. Average weight is 150 g in males and 135 g in females. Outer surface is convex and inner is concave. Notch on the inner concave surface is called hilum. Renal artery enters and renal vein as well as ureter leave the kidney through hilus. Each kidney has almost 1 million functional units called nephron.

ii. Ureters: 

A pair of ureters arise from hilum of each kidney. Each ureter is a long muscular tube 25 – 30 cm in length. Ureters open into urinary bladder by separate openings, which are not guarded by valves. They pass obliquely through the wall of urinary bladder. This helps in prevention of backward flow of urine due to compression of ureters while bladder is filled.

iii. Urinary bladder: 

It is a median pear-shaped sac. A hollow muscular organ, the bladder is situated in pelvic cavity posterior to pubic symphysis. At the base of the urinary bladder there is a small inverted triangular area called trigone. At the apex of this triangle is opening of urethra. At the two points of the base of the triangle are openings of ureters. Urinary bladder is covered externally by peritoneum.

Inner to peritoneum is muscular layer. It is formed by detrusor muscles which consist of three layers of smooth muscles. Longitudinal – circular – longitudinal respectively. Innermost layer is made up of transitional epithelial tissue. It helps bladder to stretch.

iv. Urethra: 

It is a fibromuscular tube-like structure arising from urinary bladder and opening to the exterior of the body. 

There are two urethral sphincters between urinary bladder and urethra. 

a. Internal sphincter:

Made up of detrusor muscles, involuntary in nature. 

b. External sphincter: 

Made up of striated muscles, voluntary in nature. If this valve is not functioning properly during inflammation of bladder, it can lead to kidney infection.

iv. Urethra: 

It is a fibromuscular tube-like structure arising from urinary bladder and opening to the exterior of the body. There are two urethral sphincters between urinary bladder and urethra. 

a. Internal sphincter: 

Made up of detrusor muscles, involuntary in nature. 

b. External sphincter: 

Made up of striated muscles, voluntary in nature. If this valve is not functioning properly during inflammation of bladder, it can lead to kidney infection.

i) Urochrome 

ii) Liver

B) a – adrenal gland, b – ureter