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(a) Woodrow Wilson

Non – violent democracy or reformist form of representative democracy was Gandhiji’s immediate political goal.

There is a detailed description on the Indian concept of a state in these scriptures. There is a detailed analysis of contractual principle of a state in Ramayana and also in Shanti Parva of Mahabharata. In Mahabharata, the sequential form of political knowledge has been compared to ‘Rajdharma’, ideal rules are there, it includes the matters pertaining to mutual relations between administrator and the people, scope of the state, purpose of the state, use of state powers in a controlled and dignified manner. It is expected from the administrator that he will render his responsibilities in a positive way for the welfare of the people and he will be maintaining the expected dignity while using administrative powers.

To provide all those facilities to its citizens through which there can be welfare and growth of the people.

(d)  Marxism

(b) Scientific socialism

Gandhiji’s thoughts were also influenced by ancient Indian concepts. Analysis of moral basis of a state is quite explicit in the thoughts of Gandhiji. Gandhiji regards the state as a symbol of organised violence. In ideal form, Gandhiji presented the principle of Ramrajya (Utopia), where there arises no need for any external control, but every individual is committed to truth and non – violence to the level Gandhiji expects.

And as such, the ideal of Gandhi ji with regard to a state cannot be transformed in practical terms. In the form of sub-ideal state, Gandhi ji presented a concept of decentralised village self – governance. Gandhiji terms the centralization of political powers as organised violence. According to Gandhiji, only a decentralised political system can be regarded in accordance with ideals of non – violence. He emphasized for a self – reliant and autonomous village political system.

(d)  Kautilya

The central element of liberalism is Freedom.

(b) Mahatma Gandhi

(a) Manu Smriti and Mahabharata

Karl Marx presented the principle of extinction of the state.

Between capitalist class and labour class.

• Restriction on liberty of an individual 
• Use of compulsive power of state.

Marxism is the other name of scientific socialism.

Karl Marx presented the socialist doctrine.

Karl Marx said this.

Gandhiji believed in non – violence. He wanted to form democracy in the country based on non-violence. According to him, decentralization, truth and non – violence will be administrative directives in non – violent democracy. Non-violent democracy is not a goal in itself, instead, it is the first step for achieving ultimate the political destination. He accepts that he cannot envisage the states to be passively non – violent.

In non – violent democracy, a state, by means of propagation of non-violence in the life of its people, will endeavour to minimize the use of force. In this situation, a state will need army and police, which will work in the form of servants of the people. They will be trained by the state for developing a non – violent attitude. During peacetime, these will be engaged social service and welfare activities.

Different political outlooks related to the scope of a state:

There are many political outlooks presented in respect of the scope of a state. Some political outlooks grant a state absolute powers and think an individual to be under it in an inclusive way. Yet other political outlooks limit the scope of the state and advocate maximum autonomy to an individual. 

The following are the different outlooks related to scope of a state:

1. A state, in itself, is an accomplishment, and individual a means: 

Some scholars regard state as an accomplishment. Many scholars, namely, Plato, Aristotle, Hegel, Bosanke, etc. regard a state as the apex goal of human life and an accomplishment in itself. According to Plato and Aristotle, society and state is a great moral institution whose purpose is to develop an individual morally. According to Plato, States are not born out of trees or rocks, they are born out of the character of those persons who live in them. According to Aristotle, state is a person and it is our duty to worship it reverently.

At the same time, Hegel regards the state as an accomplishment and an incarnation of God on the earth. These thinkers who regard the state as an accomplishment, have merged the will of a state with an individual’s will. The result of this principle is fascism. Fascist thinkers regard that everything is for a state and nothing is against the state. In this way, idealist and totalitarian thinkers deem a state an accomplishment.

2. State is an accomplishment of an individual: 

Thinkers who regard state as a means, consider the state to be a means for fulfilling the interests of the individual. As per their convention, all institutions are for the welfare and prosperity of an individual and not an individual for these institutions. The sole aim of a state is to do good for its people. Individualist, anarchist and pluralist thinkers regard the state as a means.

Individualist thinkers, though accept the existence of a state, yet they do not regard the state as an accomplishment. J.S. Mill and Herbert Spencer assume a state to be a necessary evil. They want the state’s work to be confined to police works. Anarchists believe that the welfare of an individual lies in the end of governance of a state. For them, state is an unnecessary, irrational and unnatural institution. Pluralist thinkers regard a state as a community akin to other communities.

3. State is both an accomplishment and a means:

 According to Bluntness, a state is a means as well as an accomplishment. On one hand, it is an institution to serve the interests of people, while on the other hand, it is also an accomplishment because happiness of an individual is dependent on the existence of the state for his own good.

Mahatma Gandhi.

Ramrajya: 

Gandhiji’s concept of Ramrajya is not in context with the administration system of Lord Ram, instead, it is a vision of state – less society. It is such a sacred arrangement, wherein individual soul will have no foreign control. Gandhiji believes that when a person completely adopts the ideals of non – violence in his life and dedicates selfishness to the ultimate truth, (then) his power of logic and his soul will guide his entire behaviour with moral impact, so that he shall need no foreign control. In this situation, an individual will be his own ruler. Gandhiji termed this situation of stateless society as ‘enlightened’ anarchy. This is his Ramrajya (Utopia).

Limitations of the state: 

Following are the major limitations of the state: 

1. Public opinion: 

With regard to public opinion, Morris Ginsberg writes, “When the minds of many people operate mutually, then forms a social element called public opinion.” A state should not work at all under any situation against public opinion. The formation of a state is only for security and welfare of its people. Therefore, a state should not restrict people’s freedom of thought and freedom of expression unnecessarily, or else, people’s outrage may take a form of rebellion. 

2. Religion: 

A state should grant religious freedom to every individual. Besides, it should also be ensured that no individual is being forced by any person or institution to follow a specific religion. 

3. Morality: 

A state should take into its cognisance that it is not forcefully imposing its moral code of conduct on its people. 

4. Daily behaviour of an individual: 

A state should not put any impediments in the freedom of daily routine activities of an individual. 

5. Fashion: 

Fashion is related to personal choices. A state need not put any restrictions on it. A state should put/impose only appropriate and rational restrictions in this sphere.

In the context of a state being an accomplishment, some scholars – Plato, Aristotle, Bosanke, Hegel, etc. regard the state as the highest goal of human life and itself an accomplishment. According to the doctrines of Plato and Aristotle, society and state is a great moral institution whose purpose is the moral development of an individual. In Plato’s words, “State does not get out of trees or rocks. It is born out of the character of those people, who reside in it.” According to Aristotle, “The advent of a state is for the fulfilment of necessities of life and it exists for a good life.

Treitschke believes that state is a person and it is our duty to worship it while bowing our head. At the same time, Hegel regards state an accomplishment in itself and as a godly incarnation on earth. Thinkers who believe the state to be an accomplishment unified one’s will with that of a state. This resulted in fascism. Fascists believe that, “Every thing is for the state, there is nothing against a state.” Idealistic thinkers accept the state as an accomplishment.

Gandhian thought.

(c) Ramrajya

• J.S. Mill 
• Herbert Spencer

In the context to a state, individualist thinkers do not regard a state as an accomplishment.

Gandhiji believed that a state does not fulfil any moral objective, and it is a symbol of organised violence.

Arguments in support of and against a non – interventionist state: 

The following arguments may be presented in support of non – interventionist state:

1. Scientific argument: 

Herbert Spencer, while invoking the concepts of life sciences, supports noninterventionism. According to him, in the struggle of life, people who are able move ahead and those who are incapable and weak get eliminated. It is a rule of nature and it should be applied to the society. And this can be applied in the society only when an individual is left independent. According to this principle, a state should provide opportunity to every individual to develop or his own according to his discretion. 

2. Economic argument: 

According to the economists, such as Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, Ricardo and Mill, etc. every individual understands in a perfect way his loss and profit. For economic development, there should be no control of a state in economic field. With the intervention of a state, zeal and motivation of an individual gets weakened, therefore, government should adopt the policy of non – interventionism in industry and business field. 

3. Moral argument: 

It is the moral argument in support of individualism that every individual has his own personality and distinct characteristics. Hence, it is the responsibility of the state to allow every individual to develop in his own way. 

4. Practical argument: 

Workforce and expertise of a state is not better than individual workforce and expertise, and hence, benefit should be drawn by the development of expertise of an individual.

Argument against non – interventionist state: 

The following arguments can be presented against a non – interventionist state: 

1. State is a welfare institution: 

All the countries have made development through a state. Today, states are undertaking various activities in various fields for the welfare of their people. In this situation, a state seems to be a welfare institution instead of being an evil. 

2. State and freedom are not mutually opposite: 

Those who believe in the concept of non-interventionism, think that state and freedom are mutually contrary. But it is an accepted principle that the purpose of the state is to establish coordination between different people and classes for their interests, so that society as a whole moves ahead on the path of progress. 

3. An individual is not always the best judge of his interests: 

An individual cannot always understand properly his interests and also he does not have the capability of understanding what is right and what is wrong for him. Hence, the state should pay heed to his well-being . 

4. Reform of a state is possible: 

Because of widening of scope of a state, it gets infested with certain evils, such as imperfect, prodigal, corrupt bureaucratic system and also dominance of bureaucracy. But these evils can be eradicated and necessary reforms can be made. On several instances, a state renders welfare works despite suffering losses. 

5. Defective concept of living science: 

The logical individualistic concepts of life science cannot be applied to people. A man, contrary to an animal, is a living being who understands human responsibilities and moral duties. It is his duty to serve and help those who are weak and helpless.

• Prof. Harold Laski 
• J.S. Mill

Gandhian state: 

Though he emphasised the formation of stateless society as an ideal state, yet in practice, he has explained two objectives of a state under the concept of decentralised village self – governance and non-violent democracy, which are as follows: 

1. Decentralised village self – governance: 

In the form of decentralised village self governance, Gandhiji presented a sub-ideal of political arrangement. He believed that the ideal state of decentralised village self governance can also be obtained by gradual efforts and by changing fundamental notions in the outlook of the people, and to ensure its formation, there was a need of a time-specific programme. 

2. Non – violent democracy: 

In the form of provisionary reformist mission, Gandhiji envisaged a non – violent democracy. In a non-violent democracy, a state establishes non – violence in the life of its people by way of propagation of non – violence. Use of force is minimal in this system. Police and army will work as the servant of people. In peace time, army and police will be engaged in constructive activities.

Concept of public welfare state.

Regarding a state, fascists believe that, “every thing is for a state, and nothing is against the state”.

• Arrangement of education 
• Arrangement of cleanliness and public health.

Komagata Maru was the name of a steamship which was taken on rent from HongKong 376 Punjabi Indian passengers were boarding it. This Ship reached Vancouver in Canada after passing Hong Kong, Shanghai and Yokohama. The Canada government did not allow it to stop at Vancouver.

On 23rd July 1914, it proceeded from Vancouver and stopped at Bajbai port in Calcutta on 29th September 1914. The government wanted to send its passengers to Punjab. The passengers fought with the police, in which about 20 passengers were killed.

Copies of Gadar Party’s major newsletter ‘Gadar’ were loaded in this shin According to the report of the British government, when this ship was at Vancouver, efforts had been made to purchase weapons and load them on this ship. The Komagata Maru incident was opposed by the members of the Gadar Party.

• Security of the country from foreign attacks.
• To establish cordial relations with foreign countries.

(d)  Aristotle

(a)  Idealists

According to Girdis, the purpose of a state is to maintain such an atmosphere, wherein all people can lead a supreme and self – reliant life.

According to Garner, the objective of the state is to perform the welfare of an individual, to perform the welfare of the nation and the development of human civilization.

1. Protection of state from foreign attacks or internal violence. 

2. Protection of an individual from injustice and torture by other members. 

3. Performing various functions, and construction and maintenance of different public institutions.

Because a person s all round development gets impeded by the intervention of the state in his freedoms.

(i) English is spoken by people all over the world.”
(ii) You are requested to do it or let it be done.
(iii) Is a letter written by you?
(iv) By whom has this book written?

1. (a) sing with closed lips in a low voice

2. (c) moving with quick light steps

3. (a) fly unsteadily by flapping

4. (b) birds feathers

5. (c) moving with quick light steps

1. (a) a piece of shot

2. (b) a small inexpensive ornament

3. (a) hang

4. (c) low continuous sound

5. (b) step

C) both A & B

D) Both A & B

C) 1 – b, 2 – a, 3 – d, 4 – c, 5 – f, 6 – e, 7 – h, 8 – g, 9 – j, 10 – i

D) Both A & B

(B) Nazar Vali