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Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide.

It is the process of fermentation by which lactose found in milk is converted to lactic acid by the action of lactobacillus.

Anaerobic respiration carried out by microorganisms is called fermentation.

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2C₂O ↑+ energy

The metabolic pathway through which the electron passes from one carrier to another, is called the electron transport system (ETS). 

This pathway is present in the inner mitochondrial membrane. 

• Electrons from NADH (produced in the mitochondria matrix) are oxidized by an NADH dehydrogenase (Complex I). After that, electrons are transferred to ubiquinone which is located within the inner membrane. 

• Ubiquinone also receives reducing equivalents via FADH₂ (Complex II). FADH₂ is generated during oxidation of succinate in the citric acid cycle. 

• The reduced ubiquinone (ubiquinol) is then oxidised with the transfer of electrons to cytochrome c via cytochrome bc₁ complex (complex III). 

• Cytochrome c is a small protein attached to the outer surface of the inner membrane and acts as a mobile carrier for transfer of electrons between complex III and IV. 

• Complex IV refers to cytochrome c oxidase complex containing cytochromes a and a₃, and two copper centres. 

• When the electrons pass from one carrier to another via complex I to IV in the electron transport chain, they are coupled to ATP synthase (complex V). This coupling is necessary for the production of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate. The nature of the electron donor decides the number of ATP molecules synthesized.

(i) It is also called as hexose monophosphate shunt, because this pathway occurs in presence of oxygen, and involves direct oxidation of glucose-6-phosphate. 

(ii) In PPP for every six molecules of glucose, one is completely oxidised to CO₂ and H₂O, while the other five are regenerated. Oxidation of glucose is linked to the formation of NADPH₂. 

(iii) Glucose is phosphorylated to glucose 6-phosphate by ATP. 

(iv) Glucose 6-PO₄ undergoes two dehydrogenation through a number of intermediates to yield ribulose-5-phosphate, two molecules of NADPH + H⁺ and a molecule of CO₂. 

(v) Complete oxidation of a molecule of glucose produces 12 molecules of NADPH+H⁺ , which is equivalent to 36 ATP molecules. 

(vi) Thus, the energy released in the oxidation of glucose via this pathway is almost equal to that of common pathway that liberates 38 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose. Pentose phosphate pathway occurs in cytoplasm but takes the help of mitochondria for producing ATP.

Breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid is called glycolysis, while further processing of pyruvic acid in anaerobes is called fermentation. 

Respiratory process involves both catabolism and anabolism; because breakdown and synthesis of substrates are involved. Hence, respiratory pathway is considered as an amphibolic pathway rather than a catabolic one.

Incomplete or partial breakdown of fuel molecules into compounds such as ethyl alcohol, lactic acid in the absence of molecular oxygen.

espiratory quotient or respiratory ratio can be defined as the ratio of the volume of to of the volume of CO₂ liberated to the volume of the O₂ consumed, or; CO₂ evolved to the volume of O₂ consumed during respiration. The value of respiratory quotient depends on the type of respiratory substrate. Its value is one for carbohydrates. However, it is always less than one for fats as fats consume more oxygen for respiration than carbohydrates. 

Mitochondria cell organelle in which Racker’s particles are present.

When the anaerobic yeast cells adapt to aerobic conditions in the presence of oxygen the outcome is termed Pasteur’s effect.

There is a sequential and orderly pathway in which one substrate makes the next substrate. Glycolysis, TCA cycle and ETS pathway follow one after another. 

• NADH is synthesized in glycolysis and is transferred into the mitochondria. The NADH undergoes oxidative phosphorylation within the mitochondria. 

• None of the intermediates in the pathway are utilised to synthesise any other compound. 

• Glucose is the only substrate undergoing respiration. No other alternative substrates are entering in the pathway at any stage. 

Sir Hans Krebs.

Breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid is called glycolysis, while further processing of pyruvic acid through aerobic route is called Citric acid cycle. Glycolysis happens in all living beings, while Citric acid cycle happens in aerobes only. Glycolysis happens in cytoplasm, while Citric acid cycle happens in mitochondria.

In high - energy bonds of ATP.

A fat molecule contains less oxygen as compared to carbon, hence, consume more oxygen and evolve less CO₂.

2 ATP molecules.

Glycolysis literally means sugar splitting.

Adenosine Tri Phosphate

Aerobic (molecular oxygen is required) or 

Anaerobic (molecular oxygen is not required). 

Invertase is convert sugar into glucose and fructose.

38 ATP is formed at the end of Kreb’s cycle.

(i) Spherosomes are small membrane bound organelles which contain granular content rich in lipids. 

(ii) They take part is storage and synthesis of fats and present abundantly in endosperm of oil seeds.

Oxygen is terminal acceptor of electron.

Mitochondrial membrane.

The organisms respire in the presence of O₂ are called aerobes.

The difference in the proton concentration on the outer and inner side of the inner mitochondrial membrane is known as proton gradient.

Mitochondrial Matrix.

Oxidative decarboxylation: Pyruvic acid in molecules enter in the mitochondria where each of them is converted into two carbon atoms-acetic acid. One carbon is released as CO₂. The removal of carbon dioxide from pyruvic acid is called decarboxylation. 

Oxidative decarboxylation plays very significant role in Kreb's cycle. This step is called link reaction or transition reaction or gateway step as it links glycolysis with Krebs cycle.

The alternative names for pentose phosphate pathway are oxidative phosphate pathway and Hexose monophosphate shunt (HMP).

Nyaya Panchayat has the right to hear some small civil and criminal cases.

The slogans of the French Revolution were Liberty, Equality & Fraternity.

Article Twenty-one (21) refers to the right to life and freedom.

Problems like troubling women for dowry are solved in Nyaya Panchayat.

In the Nyaya Panchayats problems like troubling women in the name of dowry etc. are solved.

C. give food to the birds.

A. the trunk of a pine tree.

D. All of these three.

First time when the neighbour tried to be rich, all he got was a foul-smelling dead kitten. In their second attempt, the old couple got heap of worms from the dough of rice pastry and the bean sauce. In the third attempt, the old man failed to create magic with the ashes. He spoiled dalmio’s procession and was killed by the dalmlo’s man as a punishment.

(1) The dog put his paws against his legs and motioned with his head to some spot behind.

(2) The dog was making gestures to lead the old man to the spot where the gold was buried.

(3) When the old mem ignored his gestures at first, the dog started whining and running to and fro for some minutes.

(4) The old man had actually expected to find a buried bone or bit of fish from the place indicated by the dog.

A stag was once drinking water at a pond. He saw his own reflection in water. He admired his beautiful horns, but he did not like his thin and ugly legs. Suddenly he saw a group of hunters running towards him. He ran into the jungle to save himself. His legs soon carried him far from the hunters. He then tried to hide himself in the bushes but his horns were caught into the bush. With his best efforts, he was able to free himself. Now he realised that his ugly legs helped him in saving his life, but his beautiful horns could have caused his death.

The old farmer was a kind person. He and his wife loved their pet dog as their child. They fed him fish from their own chopsticks and all the boiled rice he wanted. He was patient and kind to everything that had life and often turned up a sod on purpose to give food to the birds.

D. Both A and ‘B’.

D. All these three.

B. bring Hilsa-fish from the market openly without being talked about it.

D. All these three

Gopal had half-shaven his face, smeared ash over himself, had put on rags and was looking disgraceful. She asked Gopal the reason for such weird acts. She stopped him from going out like that but Gopal told her that he was going to buy Hilsa-fish. At last, she concluded that Gopal had gone mad.

Correct option is C. crazy man.