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The real aim of the school was to teach thoughtfulness to its children. Hence the special days were introduced, so as to make the children understand and appreciate misfortune by making them a part of that misfortune.

Each term, every child in the school had one blind day, one lame day, one deaf day, one injured day and one dumb day. According to the children, the blind day was the hardest as on that day their eyes were completely covered with bandages and they weren’t able to see anything. Also there was a constant fear of banging into something and getting hurt.

"Each term every child has one blind day, one lame day, one deaf day, one injured day and one dumb day." The blind day was the hardest because the children can't see a thing.They feel that they were going to be hit by something every moment.In other days they were able to see but darkness after blindfolding was really very scary for them.

Miss Beam laughed to see the surprised look on the author’s face after he saw children who were differently abled.

According to Miss Beam, there is no misery in the special days at school as everyone is very kind and they enjoy and learn from the spirit of the game.

According to the girl, it is troublesome to have an arm tied up because you can’t eat without help along with other things you need to use your hand for.

When the author was leaving, be realised that he was ten times more thoughtful than he thought he could be.

Meaning of Liberalism: 

Liberalism is an important and progressive line of thought of modern era. Not only that, it is also a lifestyle and movement, which rejects orthodox doctrine of medieval period and adopts new thoughts. The word ‘Liberalism’ is derived from a Latin word ‘Liberal is’, which means ‘freedom’.

In this way, Liberalism stands for an outlook free from any narrow – mindedness of thoughts, faith in democratic system and constitutional changes. It favors to grant optimum freedom in contemplation, dignity, rights, expression, exchange of thoughts, belief, business and cooperation, etc. in one’s life. It is a doctrine having faith in goodness, dignity and freedom of an individual. It has faith in law and rational administration. According to Satori, “In simple words, liberalism is a principle or behaviour of individual freedom, judicial safety and constitutional state.”

Liberalism is a political philosophy which supports freedom of an individual, constitutional state, rights and liberty of an individual, freedom of press, administration of law, impartial judiciary and decentralisation. Liberalism is accepted as a fundamental principle of democracy, because of the support it lends to the freedom of an individual and equality. It also advocates that administrative powers should be in the hands of people and no individual or a group should impose his will and fancies in the administration.

It is the conception of liberalism that certain restrictions and rules can be imposed on an individual only with his consent. In this way, at the helm of democracy, there is a liberal doctrine for the freedom of an individual. But, it should not be construed that liberalism is synonymous to democracy. Though both are closely inter-related, yet they are not one. The basis of liberalism is freedom, whereas the basis of democracy is equality. In this way, it can be concluded that liberalism is not synonymous to democracy.

(c) Agreement

(a) Individual

Marx is not a liberal thinker.

A great store of unused power.

Correct option is C. Anita

A machine gives us power and leisure.

No, they also create problems for us.

Arthashastra, written by Kautilya, has described the of ‘Saptang’ principle of a state.

 ‘Saptang’ principle means seven organs of a state: 

1. Swami 

2. Amatya 

3. Janapada 

4. Durg 

5. Kosh 

6. Dand 

7. Mitra. 

1. Swami: 

Swami implies the king who is the head of organisation, and he is sovereign. 

2. Amatya:

 Amatya is in-charge of many duties and activities of a state. He provides help to the king in his royal duties. 

3. Janapada: 

Janapada stands for a definite land area and population. 

4. Durg: 

Durg refers to the capital of the state. Durg are of many types. 

5. Kosh: 

Kosh means treasury. A state must have a rich treasury for accomplishing the administrative works of a state. 

6. Dand: 

Dand refers to army, which is of many types. 

7. Mitra: 

Mitra means important and reliable allies who are there to help the state in the times of need.

The sword in the king’s hand is a symbol of ‘power’.

Duties of a state as per Mahabharata: 

In Shanti Parva (Book of peace) of Mahabharata, the scope of a state is said to be quite broad and a state is regarded to be responsible for the people, starting from their materialistic safety, to proper upkeep and growth of their social, economic and moral parameters of life. The importance of distinction between the emergence of people and general concept of rise of people is useful in the context that these both express positive and negative obligations of a state.

A state has to discharge its duties towards the safety of the people from foreign attacks, preservation of life and property, general upkeep and judicial management and simultaneously, a state has to initiate multifaceted social, economical and moral activites for the development of the people of the state. For example, provision of education, medical care, business, transport management, development of forest and mines, care of the poor and down trodden, etc.

It is expected of a state that it has to protect its inmates from foreign attacks. Besides, it is also a responsibility of a state to keep check on wine – house owners, prostitutes, gambling, and other anti – social professions, as without these checks, the people get distressed. In addition, a state has to perform other welfare schemes like construction of big roads, arrangement of doctors and dispensaries, well construction, construction of safety walls, removal of weeds and trash for fear of fire, development of agricultural land, etc.

Other Works of a State: 

In Shanti Parva of Mahabharata, there is a mention of other state duties also, apart from those mentioned above. 

These additional duties are: 

1. Country’s deference system 

2. Resolution of problems of state 

3. Safety of the weak 

4. Security from foreign attacks 

5. Service to the people 

6. Arrangement of Agricultural and business system

As per Mahabharata, the functions of a state are physical safety of the people progress of their social, economic and moral life.

Origin of state as per Shukra Niti: 

Though in Shukra Niti, there is not much description with regard to the origin of state, yet through two references, it is seen that Shukra has supported the divine principle of origin of a state. In one reference, Shukra says that, “Brahma created the king as a servant to the subject who receives taxes from public as his salary. His existence is for the service of the people”.

In the second episode, Shukra says that, “When there was no king in the world, that is, there was chaos everywhere and people began to run here and there in search of a hideout, then God created a king for the safety of this world”. In the context of Shukra Niti, there are only two references where from an outlook is drawn in respect of origin of a state. While propagating the principle of existence of a state, a state has been considered as an important and natural institution in the scripture.

While describing the state as the basis of emergence of the world in the epic, its comparison has been made with the moon and it has been said that as the moon is the base of growth of ocean, similarly, state is the original basis for emergence of people. He described appointment of a king by ‘Brahma’ and also supported the divine principle with regard to origin of a state by describing creation of a king by God, but by terming king as servant to his subject, he has negated the divine rights of a king.

Nature of state in Shukra Niti: 

Shukdra, while propagating the organic form of a state, describes its seven organs: 

1. Raja (King) 

2. Mantri (Minister) 

3. Mitra (Allies) 

4. Kosh (Treasury) 

5. Rashtra (Boundary) 

6. Durg (Fortress) 

7. Sena (Army)

While drawing comparison of a state with human body, Shukra assumes the Raja (King) as the head, minister as the eyes, allies as ears, treasure as mouth, sena (army) as mind, durg (fortress) as both the hands and country as both the feet. In Shukra Niti scriptrure, a state has been compared to a tree in another context by terming Raja as roots of a tree, ministers as stem, army chief as branches, army as leaves, people as soil, the material obtained from land as fruits and state’s land as seed.

Shukra Niti has clarified the difference between a nation (rashtra) and a state (rajya). Two elements are included in rashtra, with the first immovable element as land, hills, natural wealth, etc. A community devoid of sovereign control is called ‘Rashtra’ and this ‘Rashtra’ is transformed into a ‘Rajya’ by way of sovereign control. That is, to say in precise manner, that a public organisation living on a definite piece of land is a rashtra if it is without sovereign control, and it is a rajya if it is with sovereign control.

Though Shukra Niti has not provided any detailed and distinctive concept in respect of the origin of a state, yet two episodes of the epic insinuate that Shukra had supported the divine principle on the origin of a state. In one reference, Shukra says that lord Brahma has appointed a king as the preserver of the subject who levies taxes on people as his salary and his existence is for the service to the people.

In another reference, it is also told that where there was no swami (king), and obviously there was anarchy all over, and people were running here and there for shelter, then God himself created a king for the safety of the world. Shukra accepts materialistic prosperity and moral growth of the subjects as the basis of existence of a state.

The following working activities or duties of a state have been suggested in Shukara Niti: 

1. Safety of people 

2. Nurture of people. 

3. Management of economy. 

4. Education – related works of a state. 

5. Management of social system. 

6. Management of judicial system. 

7. Management of administrative system. 

8. Management of relations with foreign countries.

Shukra Nitisara written by Shukra also accepts ‘Saptang’ principle of a state. While explaining the organic form of a state, in Shukra Niti, at one place, there has been a comparison of the state with human body. Among the seven organs of a state, Raja (king) is referred as head, Mantri as eyes, Mitra as ears, Kosh as mouth, Sena as thoughts (heart), Durg as both the hands and Rashtra as both the feet.

In another reference, a state has been compared to a tree, wherein Raja is regarded as the root of the free, ministers as stem, senapati as branches, sena as leaves, Praja as dhul (soil), substance received from land as fruits, land of state as seed. In the ‘Saptang’ principle, as propagated in ancient Indian philosophy, four organs presented by the western thinkers – population, definite piece of land, government and sovereignty are included.

State – related thoughts of Marx: 

Karl Marx accepts a state as a class-oriented institution. The origin of a state is because of class differences. A state has continuously been a source of exploitation. Because of the state’s help, it becomes possible for the exploiting class to exploit the weak and downtrodden. 

State – related thoughts of Marx are as follows:

1. Origin of state: 

Marx accepts a state as a classified institution. According to Marx, there was no clash in people’s interests in the society in primitive communist situation. People used to work in mutual harmony and there was no existence of a state. Private wealth came into being as a result of gradual development of the society and the entire society got divided into two classes-wealthy section and wealth – less section. Marx termed this condition as slavery era, and during this period, a state originated. 

2. Nature of state: 

According to Marx, a state, by its nature, is a class – based institution, and not a moral institution. Its formation was done by exploiting class for their own interests. Law and judicial system was made to promote the interests of the exploiting class. The state’s sovereignty, was, in fact, sovereignty of the exploiting class.

3. Objective of a state: 

According to Marx, the objective of the state is to preserve the interests of those people only who are having right of authority on governance. On account of unequal development of society, powerful class starts enjoying dominance on the state. This powerful class exploited the wealth-less class. State only served to protect the interest of the wealthy class which exploited the poof minority.

With the establishment of socialist society in the future, majority wealth – less lebour class or the exploited class will have authority on the governance of a state and then the purpose of the state will be to protect the interests of labour class. In this way, a state has never been an institution for the welfare of the entire society.

4. State arrangement related to its social condition:

 According to Marx, state system of any period is related to its own social conditions. Physical and economic circumstances found in any social condition emerge with a certain kind, and in this context, there are specific interests of the exploiting class as interests of king, monarch or capitalists.

And while protecting their own interests, the exploiting class decides and manipulates the fundamental principle of constitution, arrangement of rights in the system of administration, law and judiciary system, etc.

5. Emergence of stateless and classless society: 

According to Marx, the state is not a permanent institution. Its existence is because of class-struggle. After the dominance of wealth – less labour class upon governance, the existence of a state will no longer be there because there will be no opposing class in this condition.

With the establishment of classless society, the state will end. It will be the communist state of the society. Everybody will be getting goods as per their requirements, and every individual will do work as per his ability. Such society will not discriminate on the basis of religion, caste, color or wealth.

Generally, liberalism is thought to be synonymous to Individualism. However, Liberalism and individualism are quite distinct from each other. Individualist line of thought came into existence in 15th and 16th century when renaissance and reform movements had completely destroyed the medieval traditions. Individualism regards the state as a necessary evil. This thought does not accept the intervention of the state in the life of an individual.

It goes by the concept that no work can be accomplished by the state as good and beautiful as when it is done by the people. Liberalism is the line of thought between the end of medieval period and beginning of modern period. In modern era, it moves beyond individualist outlook and accepts the positive side of the state and it does not term the intervention of the king in the life of an individual as wrong if it is in public interest. Hence, conclusively, it can be said that liberalism is not synonymous to individualism.

Liberalism is neither synonymous to individualism, nor to democracy and nor to socialism. In the form of philosophy or principle, liberalism is a thought which is committed for freedom in government’s process and policy, principle of organization of a society and lifestyle of individual and society. 

The above statements can be clarified in the following ways:

1. Liberalism not synonymous to individualism: 

In general, liberalism is thought to be synonymous to individualism, but it is not so, because both have major differences. Individualism does not tolerate state’s intervention in the life of an individual, where as in modern era, liberalism, moving beyond individualism, accepts the positive role of a state and it does not have any objection to its intervention, if it is in the interest of general public.

2. Liberalism not synonymous to democracy: 

Some people believe that liberalism is synonymous to democracy, but this is also not true. Though, there is a close relation between democracy and liberalism, yet these are not the same. The basis of liberalism is freedom and it is against centralized administration, whereas fundamental basis of democracy is equality.

3. Liberalism not synonymous to socialism: 

Liberalism cannot be regarded to be synonymous to socialism. Despite taking man/individual as an accomplishment liberalism does not undermine social interest. Thought it assumes the state as a means, yet it supports personal liberty to an extent where it is good for collective interests. Liberalism opposes socialism and communism of modern period.

Generally, liberalism is thought to be synonymous to individualism, but it is not so, because both have significant differences. The doctrine of individualism does not accept state’s intervention in the life of an individual, whereas in modern period, liberalism is moving beyond individualist outlook and it accepts the positive role of the state and deems it as appropriate if the state interferes in the life of an individual for the sake of people at large. Hence, liberalism is not synonymous to of individualism.

In Manu Smriti, the judicial system has been given top priority. It has been included as one of the most important activities of a state and it is termed as the foundation of the existence of a state because God himself created the king to address the need of justice in the society and also for the establishment of a system of justice. According to Manu, there is a lack of pious people in the world.

An individual starts looking at the rights of others under the influence of lust, anger and greed; and avoids his defined duties and obligations. According to Manu, power of punishment of a state terrorises the culprits and thus compels all to work in the line of their obligation and also makes them ‘capable’ to use their rights.

In this way, only a state inculcates a sense of security among-st all the people. In Manu Smriti, there is a clear and detailed classification of crimes and punishments and it is also considered as mandatory for the king to function in-line with justice.

Correct answer is False

Kautilya regarded the origin of a state on the basis of the consent and acceptance of the people.

B. he wanted to hire him with money.

The poem has a profound message. Freedom is more desirable than power, gold or beauty. An employee becomes a slave or servant. He offers his services on payment. So he is duty bound to work for his employer. Playing with a child ensures the man’s freedom.

Answer is B. nothing

Answer is C. Evening

Manu has accepted the formation of a king as an amalgamation of divine parts of divine elements, namely, Indra, Vayu, Surya, Yama, Varuna, Chandrama, Agni, Prithvi and Kuber, etc.

Supportive elements / circumstances / factors in the origin and development of liberalism: 

The following are the supporting factors or circumstances in the origin and development of liberalism:

(1) Religious Reformation Movement: 

The movement initiated under the leadership of Martin Luther against the autocracy of religion and Pope in 16th century paved the way for spiritual and intellectual freedom of an individual. This movement established the ‘Protestant Religion’ in Europe. This movement made a person’s outlook broad and generous and this gave rise to the development of liberalism. 

(2) Industrial Revolution: 

Industrial revolution of Europe in the 18th century gave rise to new industrialists who opposed the restrictions imposed by the state in political and economic life, in order to gain maximum profits and thus paved the way for liberalism. 

(3) Reaction against autocracy: 

The main reason of advent of liberalism was the reaction against autocratic governments. In 16th and 17th century, Europe had autocratic monarchy. In this situation, John Locke, J.S. Mill, Herbert Spencer and T.H. Green, etc. propagated the concept of rights and liberty of an individual, and because of this, liberalism came into existence.

In Rabindranath Tagore’s ‘The Last Bargain’, the speaker is the man who has a quest for a job for himself. He is walking on the stone-paved road and asking out to be hired by someone.

An old man with his bag of gold wanted to hire the speaker with a lot of money.

But the speaker had denied his proposal because he knew the transient nature of money

Duties of a state as per Kautilya’s Arthashastra: 

In Arthashastra, Kautilya has described in vivid datails, the range of duties of a state, which are as follows:

1. Safety of people: 

It is the most important task of a king to ensure safety to his people from internal and external invasions. In the context of internal crises, he should deal with the persons of criminal records and eliminate them and in respect of external threats, a king should protect his people. 

2. Public welfare: 

Kautilya has expected a king to undertake welfare schemes. A state should render all possible help towards the aged, children, women and helpless people. It is the responsibility of a state to take proper care of the agricultural system, irrigation system and employment, etc. Besides rendering help in the times of drought famines, epidemic, etc., it is also the responsibility of a state to maintain hygienic system, medical system, water reservoirs and their construction and cleaning as a part of its welfare schemes. 

3. Regulation and control of economy: 

According to Kautilya, a state should ensure regulation and control of the economy in such a way that the economic resources do not get centralised and the economic interests of all the classes are well-protected. The state should have a control on all the businesses and the activities of their owners, price control of the produce. It should also see that no business or businessman enjoys monopoly in the economy. 

4. Judicial responsibility of state: 

Kautilya has termed judicial responsibilities as the most important obligation a state has to discharge and termed it as the basis of the state. Kautilya describes two aspects of justice. One is distributive justice, that is to say that a state has to ensure that no section of the people suffers from paucity so that there is an equitable distribution of resources in accordance with justice and principle. The second aspect of justice is remedial, that is to say that a state should protect the rights of the people and should punish those who may dare to disobey the rules of the state. The culprits should be suitably punished. 

5. Maintenance/Subsistence of social system: 

According to Kautilya, a state should ensure that the social system of the state is carried on in accordance with recognized system of ‘Classes’ and Varnas’ described in Vedas and other epics and literature. All the people should perform their duties in the light of their ‘classes’ and ‘Varnas’. The king should also organise and regulate mutual relations of different classes and also their marital system. 

6. Execution of administrative ststem: 

According to Kautilya, a state should have a competent administative system for fulfilling its wide range of responsibilities. The state sets up various departments and it should appoint in them able officers and officials. The state should have control on gazetted officers and should also ensure that these officers and officials are not exploiting the people of the state. 

7. Policy of foreign relations: 

Kautilya expects a mature and skill full attitude of a state in relation to foreign policy of a state or otherwise the state may be in danger. A state should try to avoid unnecessary wars in international arena, and it should try to increase the number of allies and decrease the number of enemies.

• Distributive justice 
• Reformist justice

According to Mahabharata, the scripture created by Lord Brahma included Dharma, Arth, Kama and Moksha. Political science originated from it. The scholars classified this as exclusive and liberal scripture, and by getting steadily brief and summarised, this scripture now turned out to be easily available and the most important.

Mahabharata supports the divine origin of political science, which is a symbol of its ancestry. Its creators are Brahma, Vishnu and Saraswati. In another reference, in the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata, Bhim has regarded Vishalakcha, Bhagwan Kavya, Sahastrachh, Prachet, Samun, Bhardwaj and Muni Gaurshira as the father of sociology.

Manu termed ‘Kuber’ as the god of wealth and glory.

The word ‘polity’ has been used in many senses like punishment policy, RajDharma (State – religion), State Scriptures, State-craft, politics etc. in Mahabharata.

(c) Mahabharata

(c) A class – based organization

(b) Liberalism

 ‘Das Kapital’ is the creation of Marx.

Though liberalism has been quite an opposite line of thought as compared to the prevalent outlook of conservatism of in England, yet liberalism has always supported ‘Changes’. Liberalism has supported all revolutionary changes. It has become a symbol of individual freedom. Liberalism supported French and American revolutions. At the same time, the conservatism of England was having contradictory outlook for reforms and changes.

It was in favour of protecting the special rights of the kings, monarchs and officers of the church. And as such, liberalism was deemed to be contrary to the outlook of conservatism. But this conception is not right. Liberalism has even objected to the socialist and communist viewpoints of the present era, whereas these schools of thoughts are in agreement with revolutionary changes. Hence, liberalism cannot be regarded as contrary to conservatism.

(a) Divine institution