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Soil erosion refers to washing away or removal of the layer of soil by various agents like running water and wind. Sheet erosion and gully erosion are the two most common ways by which soil gets eroded. When there is heavy rainfall, the top layer of soil over large areas gets washed away. This is known as sheet erosion. When rainwater in region flows down the slopes making deep and narrow furrows, it is called gully erosion. Soil erosion also refers to the loss of fertility of soil, which makes the soil infertile and exhausted. Cutting down the trees and forests, overgrazing by animals, floods, and improper farming practices are some of the main causes of soil erosion. Soil conservation is the protecting of soil against erosion and exhaustion by planting trees, shrubs and grass on hill slopes. Soil can be conserved by controlling grazing of cattle and use of proper farming methods such as the levelling of fields, terracing of hill slopes, construction of mud walls or bunds and ploughing fields in circles.

Soil erosion also refers to the loss of fertility of soil, which makes the soil infertile and exhausted. Cutting down of trees and forests, overgrazing by animals, floods, and improper farming practices are some of the main causes of soil erosion.

Soil erosion : It refers to the washing away or removal of the layers of soil by various agents like running water and wind. 

Soil conservation : It refers to the protection of soil against erosion and exhaustion because of deforestation, excessive grazing, running

Weathering : It is the process by which rocks on the land surface break down or crumble because of the action of the elements of weather such as rain, frost and temperature changes. 

Erosion : It is the process by which the weathered materials are transported elsewhere by agents such as running water, moving ice waves, and winds.

(a) Mountain soil

The colour of late – rite soil is red, just like a brick.

Soil is an important resource as human beings depend on it for their basic needs of food, shelter and clothing. It takes thousands of years for a thin layer of soil to form.

The controlling factors of soil are climate, relief, organic – materials, fundamental rocks and time.

Soil conservation is very important because soil consists of mineral particles, moisture, living organisms like bacteria and earthworms, and decayed organic matter. It is one of the most important resources as human beings-depend on it, both directly and indirectly, for their basic needs of food, shelter, and clothing. It takes thousands of years for even a thin layer of soil to form.

Due to the seasonal effects, when the fragmented rocks remain at the same place or at a little distance, then the soil formed in this manner is called local soil.

In India, late – rite soil is found in the form of a narrow belt from the edge of the Eastern Ghats to Rajmahal Hills and up till Assam proceeding through West Bengal.

In India, sandy soils are found in the areas with dry climate like Western Rajasthan, Saurashtra and the Desert of Kutch.

The responsible factors for the formation of desert soil are high temperature, more temperature difference, and physical weathering of rocks.

Correct answer is:
Afzalkhan

Correct answer is:
Salabatkhan

(i) End of Nizamshahi (1636 CE)

(ii) Attack on Javali (1656 CE)

(iii) Meeting with Afzalkhan (1659 CE)

(iv) Siege to Panhala (1660 CE)

Shahajiraje was a valiant, courageous, intelligent and a great political leader.

(i) Birth of Shivaji Maharaj

(ii) Shahajiraje became a Sardar of Adilshah

(iii) Shivaji Maharaj built Pratapgad

(iv) Siddi Jauhar marched against Shivaji Maharaj

odd is: The Mores of Javali.

Shivaji Maharaj left the fort using another difficult route.

He was accompanied by Bajiprabhu Deshpande and some chosen soldiers.

Bajiprabhu army pursued Shivaji Maharaj.

Shivaji Maharaj entrusted the responsibility of stopping Siddi’s army at the foot of Vishalgad to Bajiprabhu Deshpande.

Bajiprabhu Deshpande checked Siddi’s army at the Ghod pass near Gajapur.

He fought with the greatest valour.

Bajiprabhu died a hero’s death in the battle.

Badi Sahiba sent the powerful and experienced Afzalkhan to curb Shivaji Maharaj.

A meeting between Afzalkhan and Shivaji was arranged at the foot of Pratapgad near Wai.

At the meeting, Afzalkhan attempted treachery.

In return, Shivaji Maharaj killed Afzalkhan and routed the Adilshahi army.

(i) On one hand, Aurangzeb had Sent Shaistakhan to invade the Pune Province and on other hand the conflict with Adilshah continued.

(ii) Therefore, Shivaji Maharaj realized that it would hot be prudent to fight both the enemies at the same time.

Therefore Shivaji Maharaj entered into a treaty with the Adilshah.

Late – rite soil is formed by intensive and long – lasting weathering of the underlying parent rocks.

• Jijabai was daughter of the great Sardar Lakhujiraje Jadhav of Sindkhedraja in Buldhana district.
• At a young age, she had received military education along with learning various arts.
• She helped and encouraged Shahaji Maharaj to realise his dream of establishing Swaraj
• She was a competent and visionary political expert.

• Official seal is called the National Emblem of India.
• Elephant is in East, Horse in west (left), Bull south (right) and lion in North.
• There are four lions standings back to back, but in the emblem three are seen.
• There is a wheel under the lions. Underneath there are the words “Satyameva Jayate’ in Devnagri script.

• The objective of Shivaji Maharaj of establishing of Swaraj is expressed in his Royal Seal.
• The meaning expressed is that this seal will grow in splendour like the new moon. The seal of Shivaji, the son of Shivaji receiving homage from the whole world denotes the welfare of the people.

Red soils are found in Chhattisgarh, Chhota Nagpur, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.

Transported soils are formed by weathered material deposits, which are transported by natural forces to a new site, away from the place of their origin.

Jadhavs of Phaltan

Shivaji Maharaja’s objective of establishing Swaraj was clearly expressed in his Royal Seal.

The following were the efforts Veermata Jijabai took for Shivaji Maharaj’s education.

(i) She instilled in Shivaji the values like modesty, vigilance, truthfulness, oratory, courage and fearlessness.

(ii) She inspired the will to win the dream of Swaraj.

Correct answer is:

Sindhudurg.

Badi Sahiba was looking after the administration of the Adilshahi.

Aurangzeb sent Jaisingh, an experienced and powerful Rajput Sardar against Shivaji Maharaj.

Badi Sahiba sent Afzalkhan, a powerful and experienced Adilshahi General to curb Shivaji Maharaj.

Chandrarao More of Javali in Satara district was a powerful Sardar in the Adilshahi, who was against the founding of the Swaraj.

Correct answer is: Bengaluru

Shahajiraje entrusted the jagir of Pune to Shivajiraje and Veermata Jijabai.

Shahajiraje was granted the jagirs of Pune, Supe, Indapur and Chakan parganas located between the Bheema and Neera rivers.

Correct answer is:
Rajgad

According to the terms of the treaty, Shivaji Maharaj gave twenty-three of his forts along with adjoining territories yielding an annual revenue of four lakh hons. He also assured the Mughals, of help against Adilshah.

(i) After the conquest of Javali, Kalyan, Bhiwandi, Shivaji Maharaj came in contact with the Siddi, Portuguese and British power on the western Coast.

(ii) He realized that in order to fight these powers, it was necessary to have a strong naval force. Hence Shivaji Maharaj paid attention to raise a Navy.

How wide is the road ? 

How wide is the river ? 

How long is the road ? 

How long is the river ?

How far is your home from the school ? 

How far is the temple from here ?

How tall is Anu ? 

How old is Anu ?

How tall are you?

How old are you? 

How tall are they? 

How old are they?

Polythene is not good for environment. It does not mix with soil just like normal garbage. It stays in the soil forever and creates pollution everywhere.

We should not use polythene because it cannot be destroyed.

The garbage should be thrown in dustbins.

Garbage is made of useless things.