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The practice of establishing a country’s rule and dominance over the economic and political life of people of another country is called imperialism. 

The factors which give rise to imperialism were: 

1. Surplus Production: The capitalists asserted influence on their governments to capture colonies so that surplus goods could be sold profitably in colonies of Asia and Africa. 

2. Need for Raw Materials: Growing demand for huge quantities of raw materials to feed the new industries in Europe led to imperialism. 

3. Development of Modern means of Transportation & Communication: Invention of steamships, railways, telephone, telegraph and posts enabled man to conquer space and time. Modern means of transport and communication enabled and facilitated acquisition of colonies. 

4. Pressure of Population: The extra and surplus population in Europe had to be provided basic facilities and new regions to settle down. This led to the establishment of colonies. 

5. Rise of Industrial Capitalism: The surplus capital of industrialists needed to be invested safely. Owners of shipping companies and bankers always looked for new and better opportunities to earn more and more. This obviously led to imperialism. 

6. Ardent Nationalism: Goaded by the spirit of chauvinistic nationalism, the countries of Europe were eager to acquire colonies. Colonies added to the power and prestige of imperialist countries. 

7. Contribution of Christian Missionaries: The zeal to spread Christianity in distant lands of Asia and Africa played a crucial role in the spread of imperialism. 

8. Pretence of ‘Divine task’ to Spread Advance Civilisation: Europeans considered it their divine task to spread the ‘modernised’ European culture in backward areas of Asia and Africa. It was considered a ‘white man’s burden’ to teach civilised customs and manners to the coloured people.

The term ‘Hegemony’ stands for an international system which is dominated by a sole superpower or hyper-power. The collapse of the Soviet Union left the world with only one single power, the United States of America.

On 19 March 2003, the US launched its invasion of Iraqi under the code name ‘Operation Iraqi Freedom’. More than 40 other countries joined in the US coalition of the willing after the UN refused to give its mandate to the invasion.

A massive coalition force of 660,000 troops from 34 countries fought against Iraq and defeated it in what came to be known as the First Gulf War.

Lenin is the father of Russian socialism.

Threcimax statement.

1. To take advantage of opportunities that a hegemon creates. 

2. Increased trade, technology transfers and investment. 

3. To extract benefits by operating within hegemonic system in place of being engaged in the opposed activities.

Hegemony is an international system to dominate world by only one superpower. The natures of hegemony can be found out as follows: 

(i) Hegemony as Hard Power: 

(a) It is based on the military capability between the states. 

(b) The US military dominance is based on their higher expenditures on military as well as the technological know how. 

(c) The US bears military dominance in both the terms i.e. absolute and relative. In absolute terms the US military capabilities can reach any point on the planet and no other power can be a match to them. 

(ii) Hegemony as Structural Power:

(a) It is based on economic factors of the world dominated by the hegemonic power. 

(b) Hegemony must sustain global structure to establish certain norms for order and the US has set up Bretton Woods System. 

(c) The US hegemony has provided the global public goods to be consumed by one person without reducing the amount available for someone else as SLoCs and the Internet, MBA degree. 

(iii) Hegemony as Soft Power: 

(a) To dominate world even in reference of cultural dimensions i.e. class ascendancy in social, political and ideological spheres. 

(b) The US hegemony has the capacity to create ‘manufacturing consent’ by the class to be dominated by the hegemon. 

(c) The ‘blue jeans’ from the US is capable to engineer even a generational divide.

World Politics refers to distribution of power among the countries of the world. These countries are engaged to gain and retain power by their capabilities.

India is a state.

The sudden collapse of Soviet Union led to the New World Order in the form of the US hegemony.

9/11 denotes a series of attacks on the US by hijackers from Arab countries on 11 Sep 2001. It was the most disastrous attack on the US.

Sovereignty is the most important element of state.

(d) Government

• Plato
• Aristotle

William Jefferson Bill Clinton.

We know that no country today can match the power of America. But through certain policies we can over come the hegemony of America.

• China, India and Russia should make a military pact.
• To resist American hegemony, even as we acknowledge their superiority, get as many benefits from them as possible. 
• Keep a safe distance from them. A kind of hide and seek will do us good.

Government is an important element of state.

(c) Sovereignty

• Funeral Ceremony 
• Worship of Natural powers.

Sumerians were oldest inhabitants of valleys of Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

Difference between state and Government: 

Difference between state and government can be explained through following points: 

1. State is abstract, while Government is Concrete: 

State is abstract and its concrete form is government. State is the soul and government is body. State and government have the same relation as soul and body. 

2. State is complete, while government is its part: 

State is complete, while government is its part.

State has four main elements: 

• Population
• Fixed territory
• Government 
• Sovereignty. 

Government is one of these four elements. Government gives practical shape to works and plans of state. 

3. State is permanent, while government is changeable: 

State is permanent, whereas government is changeable. Nature of state is that of permanence and continuity. Government keeps changing. It can be changed due to many reasons like elections, rebellion, attack, military revolution, etc.

4. State has one form, while government has many: 

State is a combination of four elements of population, territory, government and sovereignty and it always remains the same, but government has many forms like democracy, republic, federal, unitary, parliamentary and presidential, etc.

5. State has sovereignty, while government does not: 

State has sovereignty. This is an important part of it, whereas government does not have sovereignty because in democracy, the people are considered to be the final source of all the powers of government.

6. State has many members, while government has limited: 

Membership of state is compulsory for everyone. A person becomes a member of state by birth, whereas only a limited number of people participate in government. Only the members of Executive, Legistature and Judiciary are members of government.

7. Fixed Territory is compulsory for state, not for government: 

Fixed territory is compulsory for state. State cannot exist without it, whereas government sometimes can be established in other state also. For example: After control of China on Tibet, its exiled government has been working from India.

8. Opposition of state is impossible, but opposition of government is possible: 

State is sovereign. Rebellion against state is considered a serious treason, so opposition of state is not possible. However, if government does any anti-public work, then the citizens can criticize and oppose the government. Government can even be changed.

9. Difference off Head and Representative:

State is the head and government is its representative. State is such a concentrated group of powers whose aim is the development of all citizens. An institution is needed to fulfil this aim and that institution is known as Government. Thus, government is that instrument of state which executes and fulfills the purposes of state. The above explanation makes it clear that state and government have a lot of differences, yet they cannot exist without each other. For this reason, for practical execution of state’s policies, government is considered its important element.

Force Theory of Origin of State: 

According to force theory, force is the only reason for origin of state. State is result of control and dominance of the stronger over the weaker. When human life began, men used to wander in groups here and there in search of food. Often, there were quarrels among those groups. In that struggle, stronger groups dominated the weaker ones and thus the state was created. The leader of the stronger group became the king and made the defeated group his subjects. Thus, force is the basis of state and state was created by wars.

Development of Force Theory: 

Sophist thinkers of ancient Greece supported the force theory. They asserted that, ‘Justice is nothing but benefit of the powerful’. Struggle between church and state in medieval Europe proves the fact that state was originated by brutal force, whereas church is the best source of spiritual power. According to Individualists also, the basis of state is Force.

Anarchists consider state as an unnecessary vice and consider force as its base. According to Karl Marx, state is based on force. Rousseau also accepted that state is originated through war. According to Aietreya Brahaman scripture, king originated from war between Gods and demons.

Alexander expanded his state only through force. Presently, making of power groups in the world on the basis of economic, materialistic and military powers, monopoly of U.S.A., all these are examples of force. Supporters of force theory in the present times include Plow-in, Jacques, Ward, Oppenheimer and Ratzel, etc.

Criticism of Force Theory:

Force theory has been criticized on the following basis:

1. Force is helping element in making of state, not the deciding element. Apart from force, blood relations, religion, and political awareness also contributed to the development and origin of state. 

2. This theory accepts that state developed only through force. Establishment of Federal system in many countries proves that state can be expanded and developed through co – operation.

3. Basis of state had not been brutal force only. Wherever this force had an upper hand, there the kings were destroyed. Basis of states of Hitler and Mussolini was brutal force only, thus they were destroyed soon.

4. Real and permanent basis of state is moral force, not brutal force, because states came into existence for the welfare of people.

5. This theory believes in war and revolutions, thus, it is against democracy.

6. This theory promotes extreme nationalism and colonialism.

Importance of Force Theory: 

Force theory has its own importance despite having many shortcomings. This theory has explained in detail the contribution of force in the development of state. Police is compulsory as a symbol of force to maintain internal peace and harmony. State cannot be protected from foreign attacks without armed military forces. Aforesaid analysis makes it clear that force theory contributed a lot in the origin of state.

Historical or Evolutionary Theory of Origin of State: 

Historical or evolutionary theory of origin of the state is considered to be scientific and logical because divine origin theory, force theory, social contract theory, patriarchal theory and matriarchal theory, all are based on speculations. State is not an organization created at a specific time, rather it is the result of evolution of centuries. It came into existence gradually.

Process of evolution of state had not remained the same. It was different in different times and circumstances. This theory considers state a natural and obvious organization. State has achieved its present nature with the development of society, culture, civilization and science. According to this theory, many elements have contributed in the development of state. 

These elements are:

1. Natural Social Nature (Tendency): 

By nature, man is a social and political animal and his tendency of living in groups gave shape to the state. The need of a sovereign organization was felt for the solution of conflicts among different individuals in the society. Thus, state was created. 

2. Blood Relation: 

In ancient times, blood relation aroused the feeling of unity and organization. The oldest and closest unit of blood relation was the family. Along with the increase in population and families, castes and clans were created, and then the society was originated, which took shape of a state in the course of time. 

3. Religion:

Religion also played an important role in the development of state like blood relations. Like blood relations, it worked for connecting the ancient men and society. Men used to perform rituals on the deaths of the old people of their families. Natural powers like Earth, Sun, Fire, Indra, etc. were also worshiped. Individuals felt the power of God in everything natural and in every change also. A deep friendship grew among the worshiped of same power which later became the basis of the state. 

4. Force: 

The process of changing the social system into political system was caned out through wars. Personal property emerged through the development in agriculture and business. Wars were fought for the protection of this property. People started accepting the leadership of powerful persons for their security. Thus, state was originated from force or wars. 

5. Economic Activities: 

Economic activities of men also had a great role in the development of state. Men had passed through four stages of economic activities from ancient times to present times : Hunting stage, Cattle Rearing stage, Agricultural stage and Industrial stage. Political organizations of men underwent great changes with this economic development. Thus, economic abilities had affected development of the state. 

6. Political Awareness: 

The most important element in development of state is political awareness along with religion, blood relations and social awareness. Some fixed political aims are achieved through this political awareness. Need of such political organization and laws was felt which could maintain peace and harmony to safeguard the lives of people, property and stabalise the family relations due to increasing population. As a result, government and laws were created and a concrete form of state came into existence.

Evolutionary theory.

Force theory of origin of state means that the basis of origin of sate is force. In every state, there had been the governance of the stronger on the weaker. Supporters of force theory believed that origin and development of state was possible only because of force. When the universe began, then groups of men used to wander here and there in search of food.

These groups often fought with each other, and when the stronger groups had their right on the weaker groups, then the state originated because the leader of the stronger group became the king and made the defeated group his subjects. Leacock, the political thinker, has explained the force theory as under:

“Historically, it means that governance is result of human attack. State originated because of making one man slave by the other and triumph of a stronger tribe on the weaker. Generally, when an individual took another under his control by the superior moral power to fulfil his own selfishness, then the state was originated. For this reason, state developed from tribes and the empires developed gradually from state”.

In present context, the divine origin theory does not seem to be appropriate. 

The reasons are as follows: 

1. In present times, when many people are atheists, who do not have any belief in God and religion, for them, this divine origin theory, whose base is God and religion, is meaningless. 

2. Presently, it is the era of democracy and intellectualism. Divine origin theory opposes democracy because it does not consider the king responsible to public. Neither can public oppose the royal power. On the other hand, this theory is unreasonable, illogical and beyond understanding. Thus, this theory is not considered appropriate.

Divine origin theory of state is a speculative theory. This is the oldest theory explaining the origin of state. According to this theory, state is created by God. God has appointed the king as his representative to operate the government of state. Though this theory does not explain correctly the origin of state, still it has its own importance. 

Its importance is as follows: 

• This theory helped to establish peace and harmony in the ancient chaotic society. 
• This theory developed the feeling of obedience and discipline in the minds of the people. 
• This theory explained the influence of religion in the development of state. 
• This theory was the first attempt for systematic explanation of origin of state, which became the basis for the development of new theories regarding the origin of state.

Importance of Force Theory: 

According to force theory, the only reason of origin of state is force. State is a result of control of the stronger over the weaker. 

Though the force theory has been much criticized, but it has its own importance:

•  This theory explains in detail the contribution of force in the origin and development of state. 
• It has presented the broad aspect of force. The complete stability of state depends on force. State cannot remain intact without it. 
• Police is necessary for maintaining internal peace and state cannot be protected from foreign attacks without strong and powerful armed military. 
• This has presented a detailed explanation of different aspects of force like economic, political, etc.

State were formed on the linguistic basis in the year 1956 (1956, 1951, 1947)

Linguistic Unity means that every language in the country whether regional or national language must be treated equally. The Indian State recognizes linguistic diversities and makes special provisions to protect and support some of the languages and dialects that are on the verge of extinction.

People speaking different languages have been living harmoniously without any conflicts. The three-language formula followed by all State Education Boards enables the inculcation of Hindi and English as languages to connect with the Union, English to connect with the outside world, and the regional/local language for communication within the State.

As per the policy the three languages recommended were:

• 1st language: Regional Language or Mother Tongue. 
• 2nd language: English or Modern Indian Language (in Hindi speaking States) Hindi or English (in non-Hindi speaking States) 
• 3rd language: English or Modern Indian Language (in Hindi speaking States)

Classical languages and languages of linguistic minorities have also found a place in the educational curriculum

Many educational bodies offer learners the option of answering their examinations in a range of mediums (e.g. Marathi, Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Kannada, English). Doordarshan and Akashwani have programmes in multiple Indian languages that reach out to millions of persons. These are measures that promote a sense of linguistic unity among multi-lingual people of the land.

(i) Regional fundamentalism can lead to acts of terrorism.

(ii) Disputes created among the regions/states are the distribution of river water, constructions, dams, demand for separate state etc.

(iii) Many regions of south India disapprove of the acceptance of Hindi as an official language.

(iv) Community participation is required to conserve language diversity.

(v) The role and significance of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj are well-established in Maharashtra.

Given the nature of our religious plurality, the concept of secularism in India fosters a modern outlook showing religious tolerance. In India, secularism implies respect and tolerance for people of all faiths, beautifully encapsulated in the term, ‘Sarva dharma samabhav’.

India has been and continues to be a land with multiple faith systems. This necessarily includes acceptance of people who do not subscribe to any religious identity, custom or practice, but who may express their loyalty and commitment to secular values such as scientific endeavor, humanitarianism, humanism, and so forth.

The term secularism implies respect and tolerance for people of all faith. The concept of secularism dates back to 2300 years ago by emperor Ashoka the term ‘Sarva Dharma Samabhav’ is one of the most cherished Indian values it is one of the biggest achievements of a democratic country. Secularism is a simple word that refers to an ideology that provides people with the right to follow any religion. It means separate religion from political, economic, social, and cultural aspects of life.

The constitution of India gives the right of freedom to all religions, protects the belief patterns and values of their religion. It permits the state with the responsibility to maintain neutrality in matters of religion. Secularism states that no one shall be subject to discrimination by any state or any social institution on grounds of religion or belief patterns.

Living in a secular state brings faith and acceptance of people from different religious backgrounds. In this way, secularism fosters a modern outlook showing religious tolerance, humanity and promotes the integration of all people in society.

Recently two factors played big roles in the Indo American relations. One is technology and the other is the contribution made by Indians in the American job market.

• 65% of India’s software export is bought by America.
• 35% of the technical experts in the Boeing Company are Indians.
• Some 300,000 Indians work in the Silicon Valley.
• In the higher technical industrial field, it is Indian Americans that have started 15% of the US companies.

Their restrictions come in three ways:

1. Division of Authority

2. Mass Media

3. NATO

Division of Authority:

In America, authority is divided. There the Executive, Legislature and Judiciary have powers. The President can’t use the military power the way he feels.

Mass media:

Mass media frequently try to find out the views of the people. They try to evaluate the style of government and the politics of the country. American military actions also will be an important subject for discussion and evaluation. It is the mass media that plays a big role in the opinion formation.

NATO:

To an extent, it is NATO that keeps America under some control. America tries to maintain good relations with democratic countries. It also wants to do well in the market. So we can say that NATO exercises some sort of control over the policies of America.

The New World Order began in 1991 after the collapse of Soviet Union. The world was left only with single superpower the US and came to be known as the US Hegemony to show the superiority of its military power. The US hegemony also shaped world economy and emerged in the form of military domination, economic order, political clout and cultural superiority.

SLoCs stands for Sea Lanes of Communications. It is the naval power of hegemon that underwrites the law of the sea and ensures freedom of navigation in international water.

WMD stands for Weapons of Mass Destruction

(i) The United States of America is represented by this mighty soldier. 

(ii) On 19 March 2003, the US launched its invasion of Iraq under the code name “Operation Iraqui Freedom”. More than forty other countries joined in the US-led invasion. The names of these countries have been written on this soldier’s uniform. 

(iii) This cartoon shows that America is all powerful and can go to any extent to serve its interests. It attacked Iraq even after the UN refused to give its mandate to the invasion.

Operation Iraqi Freedom was the code name given by the US to launch invasion on 19 March 2003. More than 40 countries joined in the US led coalition of the willing after the UN refused to give its mandate to the invasion.

Main Objective: To prevent Iraq from developing Weapons of Mass Destructions (WMD). Since no evidence of WMD has been unearthed in Iraq. 

Hidden Objective: It was motivated by controlling Iraqi Oilfields and installing a regime friendly to the US. Consequences of this Operation. 

1. Although the government of Saddam Hussein fell swiftly but US has not been able to pacify Iraq. 

2. A fully fledged insurgency against US occupation was ignited in. Iraq. 

3. Conservatively estimated that 50,000 Iraqi civilians have been killed since the US-led invasion. 

4. It is widely recognized that the US invasion of Iraq was, in some crucial respects, both a military and political failure.

1. The USA. 

2. The US hegemony. 

3. The US response to 9/11 attack against Al-Qaeda and Taliban. 

4. 9/11 attack was an attack on the US hegemony and in response they launched operation. 

Enduring Freedom to teach a lesson to the countries if it is dared to repeat.

(c) The action was taken with the prior approval of the UN.

• Theory of divine origin of state. 
•  Evolutionary theory.

• Patriarchal theory 
• Matriarchal theory.

Contribution of patriarchal and matriarchal theories in the origin of state if as under: 

• Patriarchal and matriarchal, both theories, explain and analyze the contribution of blood relations in the development of the state because state is considered an expanded form of the families. 
• Feeling of obedience and discipline also got strengthened due to patriarchal and matriarchal theories. 
• These theories have contributed significantly in the development of Political Science by throwing light on the contribution of blood relations in the development of state.

It is very difficult to say when and how the state originated. Many political scholars had made many speculations from time to time about the origin of the state and had propounded many theories. No theory has so far been accepted as conclusive, but all theories have their own importance.

These theories have explained the relationship of the ruler and the ruled. Secondly, these theories give knowledge about ancient political tendencies. Third, these theories have some elements regarding the origin of the state and thus, can be compared.

Following theories are prevalent regarding the origin of state: 

• Speculative Theories: 

It includes Divine origin of state theory, Force theory and Social Contract theory. 

• Half Speculative and Half Factual Theories: 

It includes Patriarchal theory and Matriarchal theory. 

• Historical Theory: 

It includes Evolutionary theory of state.

According to Hobbes, man was basically unsocial, selfish and quarrelsome, whereas according, to Rousseau, he was good, free and self – dependent.

(b)  Rousseau

Family was oldest and closest unit of blood relations.

Evolutionary theory.