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The statement ‘Aaya Ram Gaya Ram’ became famous due to frequent defection of MLAs from one political party to another.

1. Economic crisis due to Indo-China War 1962 and Indo-Pak War 1965.

2. Failed Monsoons, drought, serious food crisis presented a grave challenge.

In 2014, Shri Narendra Modi took an oath as the Prime Minister of India.

1. United Front Party was formed on the basis of non-Communist ideology and supposed to follow the ‘rightist’ only. 

2. (a) Lok Dal 

    (b) Bihar Kranti Sabha 

    (c) Samyukt Socialist Party 

    (d) Bharatiya Kranti Dal 

3. It is dominated by a coalition government where no single party gets a majority and this is very uncertain also.

1. 1967

2. Haryana’s MLA ‘Gaya LaP who changed the party thrice in a fortnight from Congress to United Front, back to Congress and then within nine hours to United Front again.

1. The phrase ‘Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram’ implied frequent floor crossing by legislators in the party which was developed by Haryana MLA Gaya Lai in 1967. 

2. He changed his party thrice in a fortnight from Congress to United Front back to Congress and then within nine hours to United Front again. 

3. This incident later became a political joke and develop the culture of defection in Indian politics to create instability among the political parties. 

4. Now, the Constitution has been amended to prevent this practice under ‘Anti Defection Law’.

SVD stands for Samyukt Vidhayak Dal i. e. Joint Legislative Parties formed by various non-Congress parties called as coalitions after fourth general elections.

In the 12th India-ASEAN summit Prime minister Narendra Modi named look east policy as ‘Act East Ploicy5.

After the second World War as the result of Cold War Soviet Union got disintegrated. After the disintegration of Soviet Union the world became unipolar and leadership of world came in the hands of America. After the disintegration of Soviet Union, Socialists also concluded that the world has accepted the liberal democracy of west. 

America’s politico-economist Francis Fukuyama declared the end of History but these principles proved irrelevant because :

• Fukuyama could not understand that there could be no end of history nor the destruction of supreme form which dissolves humanity. 
• World has not given recognition to the end of History. 
• A group of thinkers said that another superpower will arise which is superior in the world. 
• Philosophers have not declared the end of history. On this saying rather they ended the declaration of Fukuyama.
• Criticising communism, Fukuyama forgets that it was the end of Soviet Union and not the end of communism or socialism as an ideology. 
• Even today communist philosophy attracts the people. 
• Liberal democracy could not solve all the problems faced by humanity. 
• Due to the concept of Globalisation, unipolar world headed by USA would not last for long. 
• Now the interaction of civilizations would be written in the place of Nations. 
• So it should be hoped that the situation of unipolar world would not remain for a long period of time.

The elections of 1967 brought the coalitions when no single party got the majority and joint legislator parties called ‘Samyukt Vidhayak Dal’ came together to form the government to support non-Congress government: 

1. The SVD government in Bihar included two socialist parties SSP and PSP along with CPS on left and Jana Sangh on right. 

2. In Punjab, it was called the popular United Front and comprised the two rival Akali Parties at that time.

Due to some unresolved problems like poverty, inequality, communal and regional divisions led a failure of democratic projects or disintegration of the country.

The five member states of BRICS are : Brazil, Russia, China, India and South Africa.

The idea of BRICS was given first by American economist Zim-O-Nile in 2001.

In the beginning four member states were there in BRICS group : Brazil, Russia, India and China.

The most importnat result of the Cold War was the disintegration of Soviet Union.

Cold War was the result of ideological differences which rose in the post-world war era. One ideology was capitalist led by USA and another was communist headed by USSR. The cold war between these two superpowers had begun informally in 1917 with the outbreak of Bolshevik revolution and lasted till the disintegration of Soviet Union in 1990. Its main phases were the following :

1. First Stage (1917-1945 AD) 

• Communist government was established in Russia by Bolshevik revolution in 1917 CE. 
• After that the incidents such as establishment of control over eastern European Nations by Soviet Union, holding a different view regarding acquisition of Italy by Germany, raising voice agaisnt the bombardment of Japan by USA, etc. laid the foundation of Cold War.

2. Second Stage (196 CE-1953 CE) 

• In 1948, western Germany was separated from eastern Germany by USSR,
• In 1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) was established under the leadership of USA as an armed force. Through NATO a message was given to Soviet Union that attack on any member of NATO would invite wrath of itself, 
• In the same year communism was established in China and it accelerated the conflict between USA and Soviet Union over the issue of admission of China in UNO. 
• The bitterness turned into hostility finally in 1950 when communist North Korea attacked capitalist South Korea.

3. Third Stage (1953-1958 CE) 

• USSR tested its first nuclear device in 1953. 
• To check the spread of Russia, President Eisenhower of America formed SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organisation). 
• The USSR retaliated this move by forming a communist defense pact consisting of Eight nations known as Warsow Pact in 1955. It was an answer to NATO, o In the opposition of communist Russian invasion, American Senate passed a bill regarding privilege for President. 
• Russia criticized the attack on Egypt in 1956. Due to this, tension was created between these two superpowers.

4. Fourth Stage 

• In May 1960, a helicopter of America was caught manouvering on the borders of Soviet Union. This event led to the failure of Paris conference, 
• In 1961, Berlin wall crisis and rise of Fidel Castro of Cuba were the main events of Cold war.

5. Fifth Stage (1963-1979 CE) 

• In 1963, America and Russia signed ‘Hotline Agreement’. According to which in the time of emergency, they would communicate through radio and telephones, 
• in 1968, they both signed Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). 
• In 1971, America, Soviet Union, Britain and France signed treaty to allow the movement of people from western to eastern Germany and Vice-versa. 
• In 1971, Indo-Pak war, America favoured Pakistan and Russia favoured India, 
• In 1973, 1974 and 1977, three European security conferences were convened for mutual cooperation and peace in the countries.

6. Last Stage 1980-1990 AD 

• In 1983, Soviet Union destroyed a South Korean plane. This was condemned by the US. 
• In 1986, Soviet Union conducted Nuclear Test after removing restriction from itself. It also warned Ameria not to retaliate back. 
• In 1989, Germany was unified again.

Thus, due to continuous Cold War Soviet Union became financially weak and lost the power to remain in conflict with America. So in the reign of President Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet Union disintegrated in 1990, and along with it the Cold War came to end.

The two major challenges of the modern world are : Environment and terrorism.

Modern Nature of Terrorism : The terrorism visible in modern world, not only targets specific people of various places, but also affects each and every person of the world, whether women or children. It has been a matter of shame that the creation of God, the man, turned into a devil and undertook such violent activities. The nature of terrorism could be understood on the basis of some examples : Hijack of Indian plane from Kathmandu in 1999, Attack on world trade centre of New York in 2001 and attack on Parliament in 2001 are such events which showcase the horrific barbarities inflicted by terrorists in different parts of the word.

Institutional nature of Terrorism : This peculiar feature of Terrorism observed today is the ‘Human Bomb’. The youth of the world is being brainwashed by such terrorist institutions that in turn are raising a population of ‘Human Bombs’. Every part of the world is affected by this type of t errorism. They themselves are the victims and very meticulously they carry out terrorist activities in other countries.

Due to some unresolved problems like poverty, inequality, communal and regional divisions and the was speculations that all these could lead to a failure of the democratic project or even disintegration of country.

Indira Gandhi government devalued Indian rupee to check economic crisis of 1967. Consequently, one US dollar could be purchased for less than  5 after devaluation, it cost more than  7. 

1. The economic situation triggered a price rise.

2. People started a protest against the increase in prices of essential commodities and unemployment etc. 

3. The Communist and Socialist parties launched struggle to avail greater equality.

In 1992 in Rio-de-Janeiro in Brazil was convened the ‘Environment and Development conference’, also known as earth summit. More than 150 representatives of the world participated in it. The important subjects related to the environment were discussed in the summit. It was also decided to establish Global Environment Facility (GEF), a world bank for financial assistance. It was also expected to protect biodiversity of the world. In the conference a historic document ‘Agenda 21’ of 800 pages was also prepared. It highlighted the important points which needed the attention of the world.

In the earth summit 1992, the developing countries tried to prove the fact that developed countries were more responsible for the damage of environment in comparison to developing countries, which of course divided the summit into two groups. Thus develped nations accepted their greater responsibility and agreed to provide financial assistance through ‘Agenda 21’.

Because: 

1. Indira Gandhi campaigned to implement land reforms legislations and land ceiling legislation during elections. 

2. She ended her dependence on other political parties by strengthening her party’s position and recommended the dissolution of Lok Sabha in December 1970. 

3. The crisis in East Pakistan and the Indo- Pak war to establish Bangladesh as an independent one, also enhanced the popularity of Indira Gandhi.

‘Garibi Hatao’.

The fourth general election was held in 1967 for the first time without Nehru: 

1. The election verdict was not in favor of Congress and results jolted the Congress both at the national and state levels. 

2. Half the ministers in Indira Gandhi’s cabinet were defeated including K. Kamaraj in Tamilnadu, S.K. Patil in Maharashtra, Atulya Ghosh in West Bengal, K.B. Sahay in Bihar. 

3. Congress did not lose the majority in seven states only but two other states also prevented it to form the government due to defections. 

4. For the first time, any non-Congress party secured the majority in any state and in other eight states, different non-Congress parties formed the coalitions.

Although the Congress’s position was very weak in the electoral contest of 1971, it had something that its big opponents lacked. it had an issue, an agenda, and a positive slogan: 

Garibi Hatao in contrast to opposition’s Indira Hatao. This proved to be a major factor responsible for the dramatic victory of Indira Gandhi.

‘Privy Purses’ was the form of grant in heredity given to the rulers and their families: 

1. The grantor ‘Privy Purse’ was measured on the basis of extent revenue and potential of the merging state in the assurance given at the time of integration of princely states. 

2. Privy purses were criticised, the privileges given to princely states at the time of accession, integration, and consolidation were protested. 

3. Hence, some leaders like Indira Gandhi insisted on abolishing the privy purses because hereditary privileges were not constant with the principle of equality, social and economic justice laid down in the constitution. 

4. Hence in the elections of 1971, Indira Gandhi made this a major election issue and got a lot of public support and along with a massive victory in 1971 election, the constitution was amended to remove legal obstacles for an abolition of privy purses.

Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh in 1967.

CTBT is Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. This treaty came into existence on 24 September 1996. At that time 71 countries signed on it. Later, this number of states increased and became 178. This is the treaty banning all nuclear explosion, everywhere by anyone. Till now, India and Pakistan has not signed on it.

February 1967, Fourth General Elections to the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.

Congress (R) under Indira Gandhi had an issue, an agenda and a positive slogan which was lacked by its opponents. The ‘Grand Alliance’ had only one common I programme ‘Indira Hatao’: 

1. In contrast to this, Indira Gandhi put forward a positive slogan ‘Garibi Hatao’. 

2. By this, she generated a support base among poor, minorities, landless laborers, Dalit, women and unemployed youth. 

3. Except it, she focused on the growth of the public sector, an imposition of ceiling on rural land holdings and urban property, removal of disparity etc. 

4. Thus, the slogan of Garibi Hatao and programmes became the part of Indira Gandhi’s political strategy of building an independent nationwide political support base during the electoral contest of 1971.

Capitalism: An economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state. It the oldest and most common of all economic systems. The government of USA is an example of capitalism.

Communism: Economic and social system in which all property and resources are collectively owned by a classless society and not by individual citizens. It is the political belief that all people are equal and that workers should control the means of producing things. The government of Cuba is an example of communism.

Largest garage sale in history was resulted due to shock therapy to undervalue the valuable industries of the USSR to sell them at throwaway prices.

Collapse of Berlin Wall unified the divided Germany and eight east European countries of the Soviet Bloc replaced their Communist government resulting into disintegration of Soviet Union. With the disintegration of Soviet Union, military alliances came to an end and the world became unipolar.

Shock Therapy was the transitional form from authoritarian socialist system to a democratic capitalist system in Russia, Central Asia and East Europe under the influence of the World Bank and IMF.

Commonwealth of Independent States.

Correct option is (a) Headman of village

Farmers had to pay a lot of land revenue.

Mahalwari system was introduced to remove the shortcomings of Ryatwari system. It was introduced in U.P., Punjab and various parts of central India. Main feature of this system was the land was neither associated with any zamindar and nor with any farmer. This system was actually took place with whole community of the village. Whole of the community was responsible to pay land revenue. It was fixed in community that what a farmer has to pay. If any farmer was unable to give his share then it was taken from the community of the village.

This system was known as the best system because features of both the earlier systems were there in it. The only drawback which was there in it was that people had to pay a lot of tax.

Mahalwari system was introduced in Uttar Pradesh. Punjab and some states of Central India. In this system, revenue was collected from whole of the community.

Indigo revolt was started by the Indigo-producing farmers against imposing more tax on the production of Indigo. Indigo revolt took place between 1858 to 1860 A.D. in a large part of Bengal and Bihar. Farmers of this area refused to produce Indigo. Government threatened them but they remained stick to their demand. When government took some hard steps then they attacked the factories of the British. All the efforts to stop them gone in vain.

One revolt also took place in Champaran district in 1866-68 A.D. against the cultivation of Indigo. This revolt remained continued till the beginning of 20th century. Then Gandhiji came in their favour and then their problem was solved.

The main commercial crops were wheat, cotton, oilseeds, sugarcane, jute, etc.

Punjab, Bengal, Gujarat, Khandesh and Barar.

The main reason of farmers revolt was more taxes on land. It led to deteriorating condition of farmers. That’s why they revolted against the Britishers.

1. People started growing different crops due to the commercialization of crops. It lead to increase in production.
2. Means of transport were developed so that crops could be taken to the market.

The following were the reasons of revolts of farmers :

1. More taxes: The British introduced new systems of land revenue in their conquered states of India. Farmers were forced to pay high land revenue. That’s why they came in the debt of moneylenders with which their economic condition deteriorated.

2. Sales law: Government introduced sales law according to Permanent Settlement of Bengal. According to this law, if any zamindar was unable to pay his land revenue till March then government was free to sell his land to other zamindar for the recovery of its arear. That’s why zamindars and farmers were very angry with the government.

3. Capturing the Land: Zagirdars were given large pieces of land by the Mughal Emperor as gift. These lands were free of taxes. But these large pieces of land were captured by the British and they again imposed taxes on them. Not only this, taxes were raised. The British took harsh steps to collect taxes.

Farmers’ Revolts:

1. One revolt took place exactly after the establishment of British rule in Bengal. Farmers, Sanyasi’s and Faqir’s took part in it. They made their groups and even used arms. The British regiments were irritated by these groups. It took 30 long years for the government to suppress this revolt?
2. Farmers of Chittore and Satara revolted in 1822 A.D. against too much land tax. This revolt was suppressed by the government with the help of military and with politics. Some of the rebels were recruited in police and others were given land to till in die form of grant.
3. Farmers of the Sendove district revolted against the British government in 1829 A.D. They attacked the British police under the leadership of their leader and they killed a number of Britishers.
4. Farmers of Ganjam district revolted in 1835 A.D. under the leadership of Dhananjay. This revolt lasted till Feb. 1937. Later on this revolt was also suppressed by government with the help of large number of military forces.
5. Another farmers’ revolt took place in Sagar in 1842. Its leader was Madhuker, a Bundela Zamindar. A number of police officers were killed by farmers and they plundered many towns.
   A number of farmers’ revolts also broke out against more taxes and the capturing of land by the British. Some of other important farmers’ revolts were revolt of Patiala and Rawalpindi (Modern Pakistan).

Agriculture fulfilled the needs of people of villages before the advent of the British. But the British introduced new land settlements because of which farmers started to produce things to sell in the markets so that more and more money could be earned. In this way commercialization of agriculture took place.

Villages, before the British empire in India, were self dependent. People used to do agriculture whose main aim was to fulfil the needs of the village. Crops were not being sold. Other workers of village like blacksmith, carpenter, barber, etc. collectively fulfilled the needs of the village. But the self-dependency of the villages come to an end after the establishment of the British empire in India.

According to the new land revenue system, farmers had to pay the fixed amount to the government as land revenue and at a particular time as well. Now the main aim of agriculture was just to earn money. It is known as the commercialization of agriculture. This process of commercialization of agriculture became more complex with the advent of the Industrial Revolution in England- Now farmers were forced to produce those crops which could be used as the raw material in factories of England.

Impact of Commercialization

Merits:

• Production of different types of crops was increased.
• Means of transport were developed to take crops to markets of cities.
• Things became very cheap due to more production.
• Farmers came in contact with urban areas because of which their point of view was changed. As a result, national consciousness aroused among them.

Demerits:

1. Indian farmers used to do agriculture with ancient methods. That’s why their crops were unable to compete with those crops which were grown with the help of machines. That’s why farmers were unable to take maximum advantage out of it.
2. Farmers had to sell their crops in the market through middlemen and middlemen took their share as well. It led to less profit for farmers.

Tribal people live more in number in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.

1. False

2. True

3. True

4. False

1. important

2. one, two

3. Khasi

4. Singphos