Explore topic-wise InterviewSolutions in Current Affairs.

Singer: in his book “Religion, Society, and the Individual” Religion, involves a group of people and a shared system of believers and practices. Every religion emphasizes the need for collective worship, festival and rituals are occasions which bring people together.

Functions of Religion: Religion is an important universal institution in human society. It is a part of society, interwoven with all other aspects of human life. It is obvious that religion has an important role in society, it performs a number of important functions:

Social Solidarity: 

1. Emile Durkheim, defines religion as “a unified system of belief and practice related to sacred things”. A thing is sacred not because of a peculiar quality inherent in the thing itself. What makes a thing sacred is an attitude filled with emotion and sentiment a feeling that certain things are above and apart from the ordinary matters of everyday life.

2. By defining the values and moral beliefs as sacred, religion provides them with greater power to direct human action. Social obligations are transformed into religious duties, in worshipping society men recognize the importance of the group, their dependence upon it.

3. Collective worship as a means of reinforcing social solidarity in a social group. In collective ceremonials, the members of a group express their faith in common values and belief, a sense of group solidarity is affirmed and frightened.

4. Malinowski argues that religion promotes social solidarity by dealing with situations of emotional stress such as birth, puberty, death, accidents and natural disaster which threaten social cohesion.

5. Religious beliefs provide the ultimate justification for the values do social system. It provides support for social standard, socially accepted behavior. Thus the doctrines of Karma and Dharma in Hinduism. The Christian society maintains the tradition like Christmas, baptism and monogamous marriage, and tries to encourage conformity to society’s norms.

Environment means “That which surrounded us “or “environus” which is helpful to man’s existence and progress has been divided into physical, biological and social environments.

Fertilizer Industry:

(i)The fertiliser industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilisers (mainly urea), phosphatic fertilisers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilisers which have a combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).

(ii) Potash is entirely imported as the country does not have any reserves of commercially usable potash or potassium compounds in any form.

(iii) India is the third largest producer of nitrogenous fertilisers. There are 57 fertiliser units manufacturing nitrogenous and complex nitrogenous fertilisers, 29 for urea and 9 for producing ammonium sulphate as a byproduct and 68 other small units produce single superphosphate.

(iv) At present, there are 10 public sector undertakings and one in cooperative sector at Hazira in Gujarat under the Fertiliser Corporation of India.

(v) After the Green Revolution the industry expanded to several other parts of the country. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute towards half the fertiliser production

1. Assimilation is not confined to single field only 

2. Assimilation is a slow and gradual process 

No, Lencho did not try to find out who really sent him the money because he had complete faith in God. He truly believed that God sent the money to help him.

1. Society is the group of groups 

2. Society is a web of Social Relations 

3. Similarity or Likeness 

4. Differences in Society.

Answer: (a) Water 

The concept of ‘primary groups’ is a significant of C.H. Cooley to the social thought. Building black of human societies throughout the world history.

Characteristics of Primary groups :

a. Dominance of primary or face-to-face relationships: Primary groups are characterized by close and intimate relationships. These exists a face-to-face relationship among the members. In primary Groups everyone knows everyone else; one’s name and fame, one’s status, wealth, occupation, level of education etc.,

b. Small in Size: Primary groups are generally small in size, because its consists of few members. Size of primary groups should be small if the relations among members are to be close personal and intimate.

c. Physical Proximity or Nearness: Face-to-face relations can be found only when members reside in particular area more or less permanently. Seeing and talking with each other facilitates the exchange of ideas, opinions and sentiments.

d. Durability of the groups: Primary groups are relatively a permanent groups. Other things equal, the longer the groups remains together, the more numerous and deeper are the contacts between its members.

e. Similarity of Background: The members of the primary groups may have more or less the same background, these must be some approximations in their levels of experience, each must have something to contribute to give as well as to take.

Lencho feels that the rest of the money has been taken by the employees of the post office. Hence, in his next letter he asked God not to send the balance amount through mail as he feels the employees are a bunch of crooks. The irony in the situation is that the employees of the post office had in fact contributed the money and sent it to him and not God. 

However, Lencho believed otherwise. The situation is ironical because the ones who had helped him were labeled as crooks by Lencho.

1. InformaI control 

2. Formal control.

Comparison Chart

Alex Inkle’s in his book “what is Sociology?” has provided a general outline of the fields of Sociology on which there is considerable agreement among sociologists. It could be presented in the following manner: 

(1) Providing a sociological analysis of human culture and society: The major concern of Sociology is human society and its culture. A sociologist seeks to provide an analysis of human society and culture with a Sociological perspective. He evinces interest in the evolution of society and tries to reconstruct the major stages in the evolutionary process. An attempt is also made to “analyse the factors and forces underlying historical Transformations of society”. Due importance is given to the scientific method that is adopted in the sociological studies.

(2) Analysing the primary units of social life: Sociology has given sufficient attention to the study Of primary units of social life. In this area it is concerned with social acts and social relationships, individual personality, groups of all varieties, communities(urban, rural and tribal), association organisations and population. 

(3) Studying the Nature and Functions of Basic Social Institutions: Social Institutions constitute the basic fabric the society. Any social system is built on the foundation of social institutions. Institutions such as – the family and kinship religions and morality, Economic and political, legal and educational, scientific and aesthetic, recreational and expressive, medical and welfare, etc. Serve the most important needs of man. Sociology develops deep into the study of the origin and development, structure and function, changes and challenges of a wide variety of social institutions.

(4) Sociology throws Light on the Fundamental social processes: Human society is neither static nor uniform, it is dynamic and diverse. This dynamic element in society is reflected by what are known as “social processes”. They reveal the way in which human interaction assume different patterns and courses in social life. The social processes such as co-operation and competition, accommodation, and assimilation, social conflict and communication, social differentiation and stratification, socialisation social control and deviance, social integration and social change, etc., assume prominence in sociological studies. In the present era of explosion of knowledge, sociologists have ventured to make specialisations also, thus, today good number of specialised fields of inquiry are emerging ‘ out. Sociology of knowledge, Sociology of history, Sociology of culture, Sociology of religion, Sociology of family, etc., represent such specialised fields.

Air Pollution: Air pollution is caused by unwanted and rejected things in the atmosphere around us. According to Oxford dictionary air pollution means “The compounds that get mixed with the atmosphere causes dangerous effects on useful plants, animals and human begins

Water Pollution: Water is essential for all living things 2/3 portion on the earth is covered by water, 97.2% of water on earth is mixed with solids and rest 2.8% only is left for drinking purpose. Water pollution occurs in three different forms.

• Inland pollution. 
• Underground pollution 
• Sea pollution.

Noise Pollution:Intolerable sound is considered as sound pollution, because intense sound result in physical and mental stress and also irritation. Sound pollution is also result due to various activities of human begins. Intensity of sound is measured in decibels while talking usual intensity of sound is 60 decibels.

Soil Pollution: The upper most layer of the earth is consisted of “soil” This soil layer is formed by the natural processes from millions of years. This layer supplies the necessary nutrients essential for the growth of the plants. The soil which feeds the plants is the reason for the existence of all biological system.

The decrease in the quality of the soil and changes in it due to various activities of the humans is called as soil pollution. Soil pollution lessens the productivity nature of the soil and destroys the living things.

There are people in the real world who have an unshakable belief in God but not the kind of unquestionable faith Lencho had. I think Lencho was naïve, ungrateful and unquestioning.

The conflict between humans and nature is illustrated by the hailstones destroying the entire crop. Nature proved unpredictable and sent hailstones instead of rain. The conflict between humans themselves is seen in Lencho’s mistrust over the post office employees. They helped him with the money but he called them crooks.

In the secondary groups the relationships secondary, relatively impersonal contractual task oriented, hence limited focus of its activities.

a. Dominance of Secondary relations: The relationships that are found within secondary groups are formal indirect impersonal and secondary for example the relationship between teacher and students.

b. Large in size: The secondary groups are generally large in size that may thousands of members. Trade union, corporation, international association, etc. are secondary groups and they have thousands of members.

c. No physical basis: Secondary groups are not necessarily characterized by physical proximity. Many secondary groups are not limited to any definite area, the members such a groups are scattered over vast area.

d. Nature of Membership: Membership in the case of secondary groups in mainly voluntary. Individuals are at liberty to join or go away from the groups, for example : they are at liberty to join political parties!

e. Specific Ends and Interest: Secondary groups are formed for the realization of some specific interest’s ends. They are often called ‘Special interest groups’. Members are interested in the groups because they have specific ends to aim at.

f. Nature of Group Control: Informal means of social control are less effective in regulating the relations of members. Moral control is only secondary formal means of social control such as law, legislation; police, court etc. are made use of to control the behavior of members.

Primary Data is the information related to research collected by the researcher for the first time. This data is drawn from field study or from laborities. According for the specific purpose of solving a particular research problem”.

Primary data is original data collected by the researcher from field study. Primary or secondary ‘ data are collected through various tools or means. The major sources of primary data are: 

Observation., Interview, Questionnaire, Schedule and Social Survey.

Amir Khusrau

Khusrau is sometimes referred to as the "voice of India" or "Parrot of India" (Tuti-e-Hind), and has been called the "father of Urdu literature."

The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India is the chief executive officer of India's central bank and the ex-officio chair of its Central Board of Directors. Name--- Shaktikanta Das

Culture and human society are the two faces of the same coin. They always go together. Culture is the unique feature that differentiates human society from animals. Man is not only a social animal, but also a cultural animal, every man can be considered as a representative of the culture. Therefore culture can also be considered an important agency of social change. 

According to Robert Bierstedt “ Culture is the Complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and have as members of society.

According to Malinowski: “culture is the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends” According to Edward B.Tylor “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom, language and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society”. 

The characteristics of Conflict 

Conflict is Universal: Conflict or cash of interests is Universal in nature. It is present in almost all the societies. In some societies conflict may be very acute and vigorous while in some others. It may be very mild. Karl Marx, Frederich Engets, Saint Simon and others have emphasized the role of conflict as a fundamental factor in the social life of man.

Karl Marx, the architect of communism, has said that “The history of the hitherto existing human society is nothing but the history of the class struggle.” He has mentioned the capitalists and the laborers as belonging to two distinct social classes which have mutually opposite interests.

Conflict is a conscious action: Individual and group who are involved in Conflict are aware of the fact that they are Conflicting As Park and Burgess have pointed out conflict is always conscious and evokes the deepest emotions and stronger passions.

Conflict is personalized by competition: When competition is personalized it leads to conflict. In the struggle to overcome the other person or group, the goal is temporarily related to a level of secondary importance.

Conflict is not continuous but intermittent: Conflict never takes place continuously. It takes > place occasionally. No society can sustain itself in a state of continuous Conflict.

Conflict is conditioned by culture: Conflict is affected by the nature of the group and its particular culture. The objects of Conflicts may be property, power and status, freedom of action and though, or any other highly desired value when the stability of a political order is threatened, political Conflict may be the result. If sectarianism is ripe, we may expect Conflict to occur in region. The culturally determined values of a society will set the stage for this struggles.

Conflict and norms: Not only culture modifies conflict and its forms but also controls and governs it. When conflict is infrequent and when no adequate techniques have been worked out, more violent and unpredictable sorts at Conflict such as race, riots arise.

Frustration and insecurity promote Conflict: Sometimes, factors like frustration and insecurity promote Conflicts within the same society, individual feel frustrated if they are thoroughly disturbed in their attempts to reach their goals. These goals may be desire for power, position, prestige, status, wealth, money ere. Insecurities like economic crisis, unemployment, the fear of deprivation of love and affection may add to the frustration. In 1 extreme case of this sort one may even lose mental balance or even commit suicide. A society marked by widespread insecurity is one in which Conflict is potential.

Types of conflict: George Simmel has distinguished four types of conflict (a) war (b) feud or rational strife (c) litigation (d) conflict of impersonal ideas. 

War: according to Simmel war represents a deep seated antagonistic impulse in men. But to bring out this impulse into action some define objectives is needed. The objective may be the desire to gain material interests.

Feud and factional strife: this is an intra-group conflict. It may arise because of injustice alleged to have been done by one group to another.

Litigation: Litigation is a judicial form of conflict. It is a judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to possessions. This kind of conflict is more objectives in nature.

Conflict of impersonal ideas: This is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. In such a conflict each party attempts to justify truthfulness of its own ideas. For ex, the communists and Capitalists carry on conflicts to prove that their own system can bring in a better world order.

The concept of ‘primary groups’ is a significant of C.H. Cooley to the social thought. Building black of human societies throughout the world history.

Characteristics of Primary Group:

(a) Dominance of primary or face-to-face relationships: Primary groups are characterized by close and intimate relationships. These exists a face-to-face relationship among the members. In primary Groups everyone knows everyone else; one’s name and fame, one’s status, wealth, occupation, level of education etc.

(b) Small in size: Primary groups are generally small in size, because its consists of few members. Size of primary groups should be small if the relations among members are to be close personal and intimate. ‘ 

(c) Physical proximity or nearness: Face-to-face relations can be found only when members reside in particular area more or less permanently. Seeing and talking with each other facilitates the exchange of ideas, opinions and sentiments. 

(d) Durability of the groups: Primary groups are relatively a permanent groups. Other things equal, the longer the groups remains together, the more numerous and deeper are the contacts between its members. 

(e) Similarity of background: The members of the primary groups may have more or less the same background. These must be some approximations in their levels of experience. Each must have something to contribute to give as well as to take.

(f) Shared interest: The shared interests of the groups also hold them together, any interest becomes focused and enriched in the group process. Since all are working for a common cause each acquires stimulation and a heightening of the emotional significance of the interest. 

Secondary group : 

In the secondary groups, the relationships secondary, relatively impersonal contractual task oriented, hence limited focus of its activities.

Characteristics of Secondary groups : 

(a) Dominance of secondary relations: The relationships that are found with hi secondary groups are formal indirect impersonal and secondary for example the relationship between teacher and students. 

(b) Large in size: The secondary groups are generally large in size incomparision to primary groups that may thousands of members. Trade union, corporation, international association, etc. are secondary groups and they have thousands of members. 

(c) No physical basis: Secondary groups are not necessarily characterized by physical proximity. Many secondary groups are not limited to any definite area. The members such a groups are scattered over vast area. 

(d) Nature of membership: Membership in the case of secondaiy groups in mainly voluntary. Individuals are at liberty to join or go away from the groups, for example : they are at liberty to join political parties. 

(e) Specific ends and interest: Secondary groups are formed for the realization of some specific interest’s ends. They are often called ‘Special interest groups’. Members are interested in the groups because they have specific ends to aim at.

(f) Nature of group control: Informal means of social control are loss effective in regulating the relations of members. Moral control is only secondary formal means of social control such as law, legislation, police, court etc. are made use of to control the behavior of members.

The Mass Media: The printing and audio-visual means of communication have a great role to play in child’s socialization. Newspaper, magazine, text books, television etc., play a lucid role in transmitting culture from one generation to the other. The state may also use them deliberately to educate the mass. They may be used purposively to change the value system.

In tradition and simple societies the agencies of socialization are limited and harmonious in influencing the personality of the individual. In complex societies, however, they are many and diverse agencies, at time working at cross purposes. 

According to Durkheim “Education as the socialization of the younger generation and it is a continuous efforts to impose on the child ways of seeing feeling and acting which he could not have arrived at spontaneously Reformative function Education is of fundamental significance to the development and progress of human society. Although education as a process of socialization.

Education has also the capacity to liberate the human mind from shackles of the past and the present. It has the potential to make men question the ruling values and norms in society, to make them rebel- against the existing social constraints and to solutions to the developed social contradiction and constraints outside the framework of he established system. This we call the transformative, progressive or reformative function of education.

The American sociologists Bowles and Gintis argues that the major role of education in modem world is the reproduction of labor power. The education system helps to achieve these objectives largely through the hidden curriculum. It is not the content of lessons and the examinations that pupils take which are important, but the form that teaching and learning take and the way that schools are organized. The hidden curriculum consists of those things that pupils learn through the experience of attending school, rather than the stated educational objectives of such institutions.

According to Bowles and Gintis, the hidden curriculum shapes the future workforce in the following ways:

• It helps to produce a subservient workforce of uncritical, passive and docile workers. Far from living up to liberal ideal of encouraging self-development. 
• Bowles and Gintis claim that the hidden curriculum encourages an acceptance of hierarchy. Schools are organized on a hierarchical principle of authority and control. 
• At school, pupils learn to be motivated by external rewards, just as the workforce in a capitalist society is motivated by external rewards. Because students have so little control over, and little feeling of involvement in, their schoolwork, they get little satisfaction from studying.

The types of observations are:

• Structured: In this form of interview, there are definite, concrete and predetmined questions are framed 
• Unstructured: It includes a set of questions which are not structured in advances and which may be adjusted according to need during the question period

In 1991 rule of public security Act. 

In 1972 rule of wild protection provided Act.

The Characteristics of Conflict : Conflict is Universal: Conflict or cash of interests is Universal in nature. It is present in almost all the societies. In some societies conflict may be very acute and vigorous while in some others. It may be very mild. Karl Marx, Frederich Engets, Saint Simon and others have emphasized the role of conflict as a fundamental factor in the social life of man.

Karl Marx, the architect of communism, has said that “The history of the hitherto existing human society is nothing but the history of the class struggle.” He has mentioned the capitalists and the laborers as belonging to two distinct social classes which have mutually opposite interests. 

Conflict is personalized by competition: When competition is personalized it leads to conflict. In the struggle to overcome the other person or group, the goal is temporarily related to a level of secondary importance. 

Conflict is not continuous but intermittent: Conflict never takes place continuously. It takes place occasionally. No society can sustain itself in a state of continuous Conflict.

Conflict is conditioned by culture: Conflict is affected by the nature of the group and its particular culture. The objects of Conflicts may be property, power and status, freedom of action and though, or any other highly desired value when the stability of a political order is threatened, political Conflict may be the result. If sectarianism is ripe, we may expect Conflict to occur in region. The culturally determined values of a society will set the stage for this struggles.

Conflict and norms: Not only culture modifies conflict and its forms but also controls and governs it. When conflict is infrequent and when no adequate techniques have been worked out, more violent and unpredictable sorts at Conflict such as race, riots arise. 

Frustration and insecurity promote Conflict: Sometimes, factors like frustration and insecurity promote Conflicts within the same society, individual feel frustrated if they are thoroughly disturbed in their attempts to reach their goals. These goals may be desire for power, position, prestige, status, wealth, money ere. Insecurities like economic crisis, unemployment, the fear of deprivation of love and affection may add to the frustration. In 1 extreme case of this sort one may even lose mental balance or even commit suicide. A society marked by widespread insecurity is one in which Conflict is potential.

Types of conflict: George Simmel has distinguished four types of conflict (a) war (b) feud or rational strife (c) litigation (d) conflict of impersonal ideas.

War: according to Simmel war represents a deep seated antagonistic impulse in men. But to bring out this impulse into action some define objectives is needed. The objective may be the desire to gain material interests.

Feud and factional strife: this is an intra-group conflict. It may arise because of injustice alleged to have been done by one group to another.

Litigation: Litigation is a judicial form of conflict. It is a judicial struggle by an individual or group to protect right to possessions. This kind of conflict is more objectives in nature.

Conflict of impersonal ideas: This is a conflict carried on by the individuals not for themselves but for an ideal. In such a conflict each party attempts to justify truthfulness of its own ideas. For ex, the communists and Capitalists carry on conflicts to prove that their own system can bring in a better world order.

Soil Pollution: The upper most layer of the earth is consisted of “Soil” This soil layer is formed by the natural processes from millions of years. This layer supplies the necessary nutrients essential for the growth of the plants. The soil which feeds the plants is the reason for the existence of all biological system.

According to Malinowski: “culture is the handiwork of man and the medium through which he achieves his ends” 

Characteristics of culture are: 

Culture is learnt: Culture is often understood as learned ways of behaviors. Culture is not an inborn tendency. It is acquired or learnt. It includes those learned patterns for thinking, feeling and acting that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Therefore what is learned through socialization and are acquired in group life are what is called culture.

Culture is Social: Culture is not the property of any individual. It is the social heritage of man. It is a way of group life. It originates in and develops through social interaction. It consists of a number of behavior patterns that are common to a group of people. It is the inclusive of all expectation of the members of the groups. Thus culture is a social products shared by most of the members of the group.

Culture is Shared: Culture is a social property. It belongs to the group. The elements of culture such as customs beliefs, idea, folkways, mores, and language are all belonged to the people of a group. These are commonly shared by the members of a group. So culture is the product of groups life. Culture cannot be hidden and used by one individual. According to Robert Bierstadt. “Culture is something adopted, used believed, practiced or possessed by more than one person”.

Culture is Transmissive: Culture is the total social heritage. It is linked with the past. The past continues because it lives in culture. Culture is something that can be transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture is passed through language. Language is the chief vehicles of culture. Culture is also passed from one generation to another through traditions and customs. It is a product of human experience.

Culture is Relative: All societies are not uniform. Hence all cultures are also not uniform. They varying and differ from time to time and place to place. There may be common elements such as customs, mores, folkways, art forms, dietary habits, value systems, institutions etc, that may be seen everywhere Culture is also related to time. It varies from time to time. History of every society is the history of change in culture from time to time.

Culture is Dynamic: Culture is not a static phenomenon. It is a Dynamic entity. Changes in society imply changes in its culture. Culture simply means a way of life. It is nothing but a total “design for living”. Factors like inventions, problems, plans and policies etc. have a drastic effect on culture. As society changes a new way of life in evolved and adopted to adjust with the changing circumstances. Every factor during changes in society will also bring changes in the culture. Thus, culture is dynamic.

Culture is Gratifying: Culture is the pilot of every human activity. Culture provides the necessary environment for the satisfaction of human wants . It shows the way for getting the work done. Culture determines and guides the activities of men.

Culture is continuous and cumulative: Culture is an growing phenomenon. It includes the glory of the past and the achievements of present. Eg: Bullock carts, train, Aeroplanes etc., achievements. It is always cumulative.

Culture is Ideal in Nature: It is not merely material and non material culture. One cannot confine the culture as objects which satisfy different goals of life. The members of society provide psychological meanings to their own cultural traits. They attach the sentiments to their cultural elements. In this regard Herbert Spencer considers’culture is neither organic, nor inorganic but it is super organic. It is commonly witnessed that people never tolerate any condemnation of their culture.

A Questionnaire is a tool for data collection. It consists of number of questions printed or typed in definite order on a form or sheet or a set of forms.

The nature of Co-operations are:

1. Co-operation is universal and continuous: It is a form of social process is not only universal but also continuous. Co-operation makes possible same understanding and adjustment between individuals and groups without which social life is impossible, Cooperation is hailed as the very basis of the communication life of men.

2. Perception of common goals: Individual indulging in Cooperative interaction are aware of some goals. The goal may be winning a victory in a battle, winning a hockey match, students making a combined study and soon perception of a common goal often draws people together.

3. Collective work for common rewards: Co-operation involves combined or collective efforts, rewards are normally shared by them, for example the reward may match the victory or profit shared in an Industry.

4. Co-operation is not necessarily unselfish: It is generally believed to be unselfish, but men may also find that their selfish goals are best served by working together with their fellows. Groups may Co-Operate for self-advancement as in the case of a monopoly or mutual protection, or for the welfare of all groups.

5. Essential conditions of Co-operation: According to Young and Marck Co-operation takes under some conditions. They are as follows. Firstly, Co-operation requires a motivation to seek a goal. Secondly, people must have some knowledge of the benefits of Co-operative activity. This requires some kind of education and must have a favorable attitude towards sharing both the work and the rewards involved.

6. Psychological qualities necessary for the developing Cooperative attitudes: Co-operation requires sympathy and identification, Sympathy depends upon the capacity of the individual to imagine himself in the place of another, particular when the other person is in difficulties. Mutual aid is another name for Co-operation. Co-operation is possible only when there is like mindedness. Similarity of purpose, mutual awareness, mutual understanding, mutual helpfulness and selfless attitudes.

Types of Co-operation:

The types of co-operation can be discussed in the following ways:

1. Direct Co-operation: In the direct cooperation action the individual involved to do the identical function. Ex. Playing together worshiping together, tilling the field together, taking out a cut from the mud, etc., people do work in company with other members, performance of a common task with joint efforts brings them social satisfaction.

2. Indirect Co-operation: In this case people work individually for the attainment of a common end. People do tasks towards a similar end. This is based on the principle of division of labor and specialization. For ex. Farmers, spinners, weavers, dyers, tailors are different and engaged in different activities. But their end remains the Same, that of producing clothes. The modem technological age requires specialization of skill and functions, hence it depends on Co-operation.

Sociologist have also spoken of three other types of Co-operation, namely primary Co-operation Secondary Co-operation and tertiary Co-operation. These types are witnessed in primary groups, secondary groups and between two or more groups respectively.

Herbert Spencer is one of pioneers of Sociology and it has been described Herbert Spencer’s Sociology as socially Darwinistic. Herbert Spencer has been called as “Second Father Sociology.” 

Being a famous evolutionist, Spencer was very much influenced by Charles Darwin’s book “The origin of the species”. He tried to apply the theory of Biological evolution to Sociology. Spencer used the concept of evolution of animals to explain the evolution of society and he compares the society to human organism. His theory of organic analogy was very much popular earlier even though it has been rejected now. Spencer claimed that man’s mind has evolved in the same way from the simple automatic responses of lower animals to the process of reasoning in the thinking of man.

Spencer believed in two kinds of knowledge: knowledge gained by the individual and knowledge gained by the race. He also developed a theory of two types of society. They are (1) militant society (2) Industrial society. These are corresponded to the evolutionary progression. Thus according to him society is changing from simple form to complex form. Spencer stressed that the whole society should be considered as a unit of society.

According to him the different parts of society are interrelated and interdependent, not only the parts influence the whole system, but also the whole system influences the parts. While explaining the stages of the development of society his attitude of comparison draws a special attention. Major works of Herbert Spencer are “Social Statics”, “First Principles”, “Principles of ‘ Ethics”, “The Man Versus State”, “The study of sociology”, Principles of sociology”.

According to M. E. Lones “social change is a term used to describe variations in our modification of any aspect of social process. Social patterns, social interactions or social organization” The characteristics of social change are:

Social change is Universal and Continuous The change is true for all societies. Whether it is east or west, urban or Rural societies, for example in rural society change may be slow in urban society change may be rapid. Today in India we find rapid change from north to south. The extent of change may be different but every part of society Changes.

Society changes Social Change is Temporal: Social change never stops. It continues and is continuous. It is also called a process. Social change happens in time period and it is called as temporal. We see in society that many innovations, alterations, modifications take place from time to time regularly. Time is the best yard stick to measure change. We observe two different phenomena in two different time period. 

Social change is Inevitable and Environment: Naturally change is inevitable because it is natural. Natural phenomena are inevitable to society. Hence, social changes are inevitable. Social change does not occur according to the interest of man. Social change does not go according to our interest only It is changing naturally. Man changes its direction and speed

Social change is Human Change: The sociological significance of the change consists in the fact that it involves the human aspect. The composition of society is not constant, but changing. The fact that people affect change and are themselves affected by it makes change extremely important. 

Factors of Social change: Social change results from an interaction of a number of factors. A single factor may trigger a particular change, but normally is always associated with a number of factors. The physical, biological, technological cultural and other factors may together bring about social change.

Methods of Accommodations: Accommodation arrangements between groups or individuals take variety of forms, Gillin and Gillin have mentioned. They are:

1. Yielding to coercion: Coercion involves the use of force or the threat of force for making the weaker party to accept the conditions of agreement. This can take place when the parties are of unequal strength in wars the victorious nation imposes its will on the vanquished. Various political dictatorship are also instances of coercive accommodation in which a strong minority group which seizes political power imposes its will on the masses.

2. Compromise: When the contending parties are almost equal in power they attain accommodation by means of compromise. In compromise each party to the dispute makes some concessions and yields to some demand of the other. The “all or nothing” attitudes gives way to willingness to give up certain points in order to gain others. Certain international agreements and management labour agreements on wages, hours of work are example of compromise.

The role of third party in compromise: 

1. Arbitration: When the contending parties themselves are not able to resolve their differences they may resort to arbitration. Arbitration is a device for bringing about compromise in which a third party tries to bring about an end to the conflict. Here the decision of the third party is binding on both the parties. Labour management disputes some political disputes are often resolved in this way.

2. Mediation: Mediation is more a kin to arbitration. This involves the introduction into the conflict of a neutral agent whose efforts are directed towards bringing about a peaceful settlements. But the mediator has no power to settle the conflict as but the mediator has no power to settle the conflict as such for his decisions are not binding on the parties.

3. Conciliation: Closely related to compromise is conciliation. This is an attempt to persuade the disputants to develop friendship and come to an agreement. Conciliation has been used in industrial, racial and religious struggles. Conciliation implies a milder response to an opponent than coercion. In the end conciliation, like toleration opens the door to assimilation.

Interview, Questionaire are the two stages of scientific method.

In group is a group, to which an individual belongs, He feels that he belongs to a particular group and the rest are other groups or out groups. An out groups is one to which an individual does not belong or feels that he does not belongs in a particular content.

W. G. Sumner in his book ‘Folkways’ differentiates between ‘in groups and’ ‘out groups’. An in group is simply we-groups and out-groups are ‘they-groups.

The in group is one to which an individual belongs or feels that he belongs and the rest of the groups are ‘out groups.

Social change in agricultural technology directly we can use. Social Progress we can see in man and nature ‘

According to Maclver and Page “When the folkways have added to them conceptions of groups welfare, standards of right and wrong they are converted into mores”. 

Characteristics of Mores are:

More are the regulators of social life: Mores represent the living character of the group or community. They are always considered right by the people who share them. They are morally right and their violation morally wrong. Hence they are more compulsive in nature. They put restrictions on our behavior.

Mores are relatively more persistent: More are relatively long lasting than ordinary folkways. In fact, they even become conservative elements in society. They also put up resistance to change. 

Mores vary from group to group or time to time: What is prescribed in one group is prohibited in another Eskimos for example: often practice female infanticide, whereas such a practice is strictly forbidden in the modern societies. Mores not only differ with culture but also with time. What is right at one time may be wrong at another and vice versa. Ex; the practice of “Sati” was “moral” then, but today it is illegal and immoral.

Mores are often backed by values and religion: More normally receive the sanction and backing of values and religion. When this occurs they become still more powerful and binding. Mores backed by religious sanctions are strongly justified people.

Competition is the most fundamental form of social struggle

Influence of the French revolutions (1789): The French Revolution was the most immediate factor in the rise of sociological thinking, the new political climate emphasized liberty, equality, emity, justice, individual right & thinking. The writers and thinkers of the day were particularly I disturbed by the chaos and disorder which the Revolution brought in.

Some of the radical I thinkers sought the need to find out new bases of social order or system which had been disturbed by the political revolutions. This interest in the issue of social order evinced by the social thinkers ultimately supported the cause of the emergence of sociology. The impact of the Industrial Revolution: the Industrial Revolution that began in England 1 in the 18th century swept through many western societies.

The Social effects of Industrial I Revolution were many. The revolution led to a factory system of production which in turn gave, place to mechanisation and industrialization. The simple rural life and domestic industries were replaced by complex urban life and mass production of goods. Industrialization changed the direction of civilisation.

Sociology helps become a good citizen and getting more job opportunities in Mass media. 

According to Ogburn and Nimkoff “It is a group united by the ties of marriage with or without Children.” 

Co-operation is one of the basic pervasive and continuous social process. It is very basic of .men’s social existence. Co-operation generally means “working together for the pursuit of the common goal”. 

According to Merrill and Eldredge: “Co-operation is a form of Social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain a common end”.

The nature of Co-operation are:

Co-operation is universal and continuous: It is a form of social process is not only universal but also continuous. Co-operation makes possible same understanding and adjustment between individuals and groups without which social life is impossible. Cooperation is hailed as the very basis of the communication life of men. 

Perception of common goals: Individual indulging in Co-operative interaction are aware of some goals. The goal may be winning a victory in a battle, winning a hockey match, students making a combined study and so on perception of a common goal often draws people together.

Collective work for common rewards: Co-operation involves combined or collective efforts, rewards are normally shared by them, for example the reward may be match victory or profit shared in an Industry.

Co-operation is not necessarily unselfish: It is generally believed to be unselfish, but men may also find that their selfish goals are best served by working together with their fellows. Groups may Co-Operate for self-advancement as in the case of a monopoly or mutual protection, or for the welfare of all groups.

Essential conditions of Co-operation: According to Young and Marck Co-operation takes under some conditions. They are as follows. Firstly, Co-operation requires a motivation to seek a goal. Secondly, people must have some knowledge of the benefits of Co-operative activity. This requires some kind of education and must have a favorable attitude towards sharing both the work and the rewards involved.

Psychological qualities necessary for the developing Co-operative attitudes: Co-operation requires sympathy and identification, Sympathy depends upon the capacity of the individual to imagine himself in the place of another, particular when the other person is in difficulties, Mutual aid is another name for Co-operation. Cooperation is possible only when there is like mindedness. Similarity of purpose, mutual awareness, mutual understanding, mutual helpfulness and selfless attitudes.

The types of co-operation can be discussed in the following ways:

Direct Co-operation: In the direct cooperation action the individual involved to do the identical function. Ex. Playing together worshiping together, tilling the field together, taking out a cut from the mud, etc., people do work in company with other members, performance of a common task with joint efforts brings them social satisfaction.

Indirect Co-operation: In this case people work individually for the attainment of a common end. People do tasks towards a similar end. This is based on the principle of division of labor and specialization. For ex. Farmers, spinners, weavers, dyers, tailors are different and engaged in different activities. But their end remains the same, that of producing clothes. The modern technological age requires specialization of skill and functions, hence it depends on Co-operation.

Sociologist have also spoken of three other types of Co-operation, namely primary Co-operation Secondary Co-operation and tertiary Co-operation. These types are witnessed in primary groups, secondary groups and between two or more groups respectively.

According to Biesanz and Biesanz: “Competition is the string of two or more persons for the same goal which is limited so that all cannot share”.

The term modernisation has been severally defined by several eminent scholars and one of them is the Indian sociologist Prof. Y. Singh who writes, “Modernisation symbolizes a rational attitude towards issues and their evaluation from universalistic, not particularistic point of view.

Family is the first school and the mother is the first teacher is the dictum that sufficiently explains the role of informal education.

The basic unit of the social structure in every society is the family. It associated with such emotive issues as love, marriage, home and child bearing. According to naclver and Page “Marriage is a durable association between husband and wife for procreation and upbringing of children and requires social approval” 

The characteristics of family are:

Family is an Universal As stated earlier, the family is the most permanent and pervasive of all social institutions. All societies both large and small, primitive and civilized, ancient and modem, have institutionalized the process of procreation of the species and the rearing of the young. It is a permanent and universal institution and one of the constants of human life.

Biological Basis of the Family: The institution of the family is to be explained in terms of biological factor-the existence of two sexes and the sexual character of reproduction in the human species. It appears as s natural answer to the human sexual drive, a phenomenon solidly based in the biology of the human organism.

Limited size: Family is defined as a primary group. It may include parents and their unmarried children or parents and their children. The bonds that the together these limited number of members with limited common interests are the outcome of emotional factors such as love, mutual affection and solicitude. This emotional basis of the family makes it an ideally suitable primary social group in every society.

Common Residence and Nomenclature, satisfy basic needs: The family is one of the most durable of all social institutions. Each family has s residence, an address and a name, a family can mean two quite different things depending upon the vantage from which we view it. 

Each family has common habitation for its living. Without a dwelling place, place the task of childbearing and rearing cannot be adequately met. however, family has a wider meaning than mere household since a family can be spread out geographically sometimes but yet emotionally, socially and legally be known as a family.

a. State repression followed by armed rebellion leading to a vicious circle.

b. True. These states achieved statehood as a result of tribal struggle.

c. State

d. True

Material culture are printing press, banks, money and as per like.

Religion and Education.