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The concept of “Backward Castes/Classes Movement “ refers to the movement launched by die backward castes/classes which consist of non-Brahmin caste. The movement aims at removing or lessening the caste inequalities, promoting the economic advancement of the poor, the deprived and the lower castes, and to obtain for them equal educational facilities and political opportunities.

The movement also signifies a great social awakening that took place in the lower castes and determined efforts On their part to seek avenues of social mobility.

1. The Course of the Movement: jyothirao Phule of Poona was one of the first to. have revolted against the tyranny of upper caste in domination. He started social reform movement called the Satya Shodak Samaj wasfounded on 1873. Its aim was to challenge upper caste supremacy to redeem the Sudras and untouchables from the influence of Hindu scriptures to teach them human rights, liberate them from mental and religious slavery.

Satya Shodak Samaj movement and the cause of backward class were further carried by Sri Sahu Maharaj of Kolhapur. Sri Sahu felt that unless thd weaker sections of the society were ‘made conscious of their democratic rights, of their rightful place in society’, India would not be in a position to work on democratic principles. He started schools and hostels for exclusively backward classes students.

The backward class Movements came to be systematically organised in the Madras Presidency in the second decade of the 20^th century. The South Indian Liberal Federation, popularly called Justice Party, was formed in 1916.

Backward class leaders in Madras became conscious and started organising themselves. Dr. T.M. Nair, Sir P.T. Chettiar, and T.E. Mudaliar Joined together to start ‘South Indian People’s Association’, a joint-stock company in 1916 with a Sole aim of publishing newspapers. This association: advocating the cause of the non-Brahmins, started dailies in English ‘Justice’, in Tamil the ‘Dravidian’ and in Telugu ‘Andhra Prakashika’.

The Self-Respect Movement or the Dravidian Phase starts with the entry of Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker. Periyar rejected caste as the one and only criterion of personal worth. He championed new system of values in which all people could enjoy self-respect. Formulation of the Dravidian ideology, as opposed to Aryan ideology, is the basis of self-respect movement. Highlighting the superiority of Tamil Dravidian culture over Sanskrit Aryan culture.

The nori-Brahmin movement of Karnataka enter the princely state of Mysore. Okkaligas, Lingayats, and Muslims of Mysore had realised their position of relative deprivation as against the Brahmins. By 1917 the different groups formed an alliance called the ‘Praja Mitra Mandali’.

In 1918, this Mandali pleaded Maharaj of Mysore for communal representation in legislature, reservation of posts in public services and educational institutions. Miller Committee was appointed by the Maharaj of Mysore to look into the demands of Mandali This committee recommended the acceptance of all the demands. Since then Backward classes have. availed benefits/ in the fields of education, employment and politics.

The orientation of the non-brahmin movement in Kerala differs from those in Maharastra, Madras, and Karnataka. It lacked c the general anti-Brahmin ideology. Sri Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) It was meant to be a casteless organisation open to all people.

It had two important programmes; Encouraging education by starting educational institutions; first important programme was to uplift the Ezhavas, a depressed caste group of Kerala, As an important part of the organizational activity.

Narayana Guru started a number of schools and colleges throughout Kerala to spread education on a massive scale among the lower caste. Sri Narayana Guru built a number of temples, simplified the rituals regarding worship, marriage, and funerals. With this, he wanted to help the people of his community in secular and also spiritual matters. He led a quite significant social revolution and gave the watchwords “one caste, one religion, one god for all men”.

National integration refers to national unity and a sense of belonging to the nation. It is an essential aspect in the making of a nation. Promotion of national integration is regarded as a part and parcel of the policy of any country. According to Benjamin “National integration refers to the assimilation of the entire people of a country to a common identity.

In simple words, National Integration refers to the process wherein a feeling of togetherness, a sense of national unity and above all, a sense of national belongingness is developed among people. It is in this context, the concept of ‘National integration’ has assumed importance.

There are many challenges to National integration. They are as follows;

1. Regionalism 

2. Communalism 

3. Linguist and 

4. Extremism and Terrorism

1. Regionalism: Regionalism is expressed in the desire of people of one region to promote their own regional interest at the expense of the interests of other regions. It has often led to separatism and instigated separatist activities and violent movements. Selfish politicians exploit it. Thus, regionalism has challenged the primacy of the nationalistic interests and undermines national unity. 

Regionalism is mainly of four forms namely.

• Demand for separation from the Indian Union 
• Demand for a separate statehood 
• Demand for a full-fledged statehood 
• Inter-states disputes-Border disputes.

2. Communalism: Communalism is the antagonism practiced by the members of one community against the people of other communities and religion. Communalism is the product of a particular society, economy and polity, which creates problems.

Communalism is an ideological tool for the propagation of economic and political interests. It is an instrument in the hands of the upper class to concentrate power by dividing people. The elites strive to maintain a status quo against transformation by dividing people on communal and religious lines.

3. Linguism: Linguism implies one-sided love and admiration towards one’s language and a prejudice and hatred towards other languages. India is a land of many languages and it has been called as a ‘Museum of languages’.

Diversity of languages has also led to linguism. It has often been manifested into violent movements posing threat to national integration. Linguistic tensions are prevailing in the border areas which are bilingual.

4. Extremism and Terrorism: Extremism and terrorism have emerged during the recent years as the most formidable challenges to national integration. Extremism refers to the readiness on the part of an individual or group to go to any extreme even to resort to undemocratic, violent and harmful means to fulfil one’s objectives.

In the past India has been facing the problems of terrorism since independence. India has faced this problem in Nagaland (1951), Mizoram (1966), Manipur (1976), Tripura (1980) and West Bengal in (1986).

Terrorism in India is essentially the creation of politics. According to Prof. Rama Ahuja there are four types of terrorism India,

• Khalistan oriented terrorism in Punjab 
• Militants terrorism in Kashmir.
• Naxalite terrorism in West Bengal, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh Telangana, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh. 
• ULFA terrorism in Assam.

The Khalistan oriented Sikh terrorism was based on a dream of theocratic state, Kashmir militants are based on their separate identity. The Naxalite terrorism is based on class enmity. Terrorism in North Eastern India is based on the identity crisis and the grievance situation.

In addition to these factors, corruption, poverty, unemployment/ youth unrest, widening gap between rich and poor, which are also the major challenges for national integration.

During 1920, an agitation was started by Backward classes in the Mysore Province to get political participation to Non-Brahmins and was led by Sri Kantaraje Urs.

Life of every member of the Indian society is to a large extent influenced by three systems viz., joint family, caste system and village community. They influence one’s occupation, food, dress habits, philosophy and marriage. The study of caste system is important because caste in India is an all pervasive and deep rooted social institution.

Definitions of Caste: a. Herbert Risley has defined caste as “A collection of families or a group of families bearing a common name, claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor, human or divine, professing to follow the same hereditary calling and regarding by those who are competent to give an opinion as forming a single homogeneous community”.

b. S. V. Kethkar in his work ‘History of Caste in India’ states that A caste is a group having two characteristics.

• Membership is confined to only those who are born of other members. 
• The members are forbidden by inexorable social law to marry outside the group (Endogamy)”.

1. Caste as a Segmental Division of Society: The society is divided into various castes with a well developed life of their own. The membership in a caste is determined by birth. Caste has hereditary status, which is determined.by birth. Each caste has a council of its own, known as caste Panchayat.

Caste panchayats imposed certain restrictions on social intercourse between castes like marriages commensal and occupational interactions. By these restrictions each caste had its own way of life. Violation of caste norms attracted punishment from the caste panchayat depending on the seriousness of the violations.

2. Hierarchy: The whole society is divided into distinct castes with a concept of high and low, or as superior and inferior associated with this gradation or ranking. The Brahmins were placed at the top of the hierarchy and regarded as pure. The degraded castes or untouchables occupied the other end of the hierarchy. They were subjected to manifold disabilities.

3. Restrictions on Feeding and Social Intercourse: There are minute rules as to what sort of food or drink can be accepted by a person and from what castes, who should accept food or drink at the hands of whom is defined by caste.

4. Civil and Religious Disabilities and Privileges of the Different Sections: Segregation of individual castes or groups of castes in a village is the most obvious mark of civil privileges and disabilities and it has prevailed in a more or less definite form all over India.

Generally, untouchables were made to live on the outskirts. Certain parts of the town or village are inaccessible to certain castes. Restrictions on using public roads, water facilities, Hotels, etc.

5. Restrictions on occupations: According to G.S. Ghurye every caste was associated with a traditional occupation. The technical skill of the occupation was made hereditary. Since a distinction was made between occupation being clean and unclean. The hereditary occupations reflected a caste status.

6. Restrictions on Marriages (Endogamy): Finally, every caste also maintained its rank and status regarding marriages, inter caste marriages were prohibited. Hence they practiced endogamy. Caste is an endogamous group. “Endogamy is the essence of the caste system. Every caste was segmented into sub-casteS, and these sub castes were the units of endogamy.

1. Segmental division:

So far as caste system is concerned, each caste is an autonomous group independent of the other. Membership in a caste is based on birth. Hence it is unchangeable.

For this reason mobility from one caste to another is impossible. Each caste has its own way of life. It has its own rules and regulations, customs, traditions, practices and rituals. It has its own governing body called the caste council to enforce the caste rules. In this way each caste is a social world by itself.

2. Hierarchy:

The caste system is hierarchical in nature. It comprises four varnas or castes. These in descending order of ranking are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. There are many castes between the two extremes-the Brahmins and the Shudras. Their social status depends upon their distance from the Brahmins. 

The untouchables exist outside the Varna scheme. This five-fold categorization is essentially a religious one, making distinctions on the basis of relative ritual purity. D.C. Bhattacharya rightly observes that “not only do the various castes form a hierarchy but the occupation practised by them, the various items of their diet and the customs they observe all form separate hierarchies.”

3. Endogamy:

Westermark regards endogamy as the essence of the caste system. Endogamy refers to marriage within the caste. The principle of endogamy forbids its members to marry outside the caste. The violation of the rule of endogamy would mean ostracism and loss of caste. Marriage within the Gotra or clan is prohibited. This rule of exogamy is observed strictly in the rural setting. Further, it is worth mentioning in this context that there are a few exceptions to the rule of endogamy in the form of anuloma and pratiloma marriage.

4. Fixity of occupation:

Caste system is characterized by fixity of occupation. Occupations are hereditary and the members of a caste are expected to follow their traditional occupation without fail. Brahmins are engaged in performing religious ceremonies. Washermen regard it their duty to wash clothes of other caste people. Some occupations like trade, agriculture, military service are, however, regarded as anybody’s callings.

5. Purity and Pollution:

The caste system is said to be founded on the concepts of purity and pollution. The concepts of purity and pollution provide one of the main criteria for determining the position of a caste or sub-caste in the hierarchical order.

The Brahmin is said to be the purest group. He is placed at the zenith of the caste hierarchy. On the other hand, Harijans, not included in the Varna scheme are considered as the most polluting and rank the lowest.

6. Unique culture:

According to Professor Ghurye, “Castes are small and complete social worlds in themselves, marked off definitely from one another, though subsisting within the larger society.” Every caste has a distinct culture, customs and traditions which distinguish it from those of the other castes. The food habits, occupational specialisation, behavioural patterns etc. of a caste are handed down from one generation to another through the process of socialisation.

7. Caste Panchayat:

The Caste Panchayat is concerned with all matters belonging to the code and discipline of the caste. Matters such as breaking the marriage promise, adultery by the wife, having illicit sex relations with people of another caste, killing cows, insulting Brahmins, non-payment of debt etc. are dealt with by the Caste Council.

The Caste Panchayat inflicts punishment on the erring members of the caste. The punishment varies from arranging dinner party for the fellow caste-men or giving fine to going through purification ceremonies, doing pilgrimage or suffering segregation.

8. Closed group:

Endogamy, fixity of occupation, heredity and unique culture combined together make caste a closed group. According to Max Weber, “Caste is doubtlessly a closed status group.” The reason why caste is a closed status group is that all the obligations and barriers that membership in a status group entails also exist in a caste where they are intensified to the higher degree.

9. A particular name:

Every caste has a particular name. Generally the occupation of a caste is known with the help of the name of the caste.

The surviving victims of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

The candidates have to disclose their personal details of criminal, education and property while filing their nominations.

1. Criminal antecedents: To curb criminalization of politics, the Supreme Court of India in 2002, gave directions to Election Commission to implement and Parliament also amended the Representation of People’s Act of 1951 in December 2002.

Through this Act, submission of details regarding criminal antecedents are made compulsory for all the candidates along with their nomination papers. The details of cases pending against them in the courts and whether they were convicted or acquitted.

The recent decisions of the Supreme Court made it clear that the candidates having criminal records are debarred from contesting elections and members of legislature would lose their membership. In this regard, the Election Commission has framed rules to restrict the candidates from contesting elections. 

Disqualification for criminal offences is provided, in RP Act of 1951.

a. As per the Act, a person is disqualified from contesting elections only on conviction by a court of law. 

b. Cases filed six months before election would lead to disqualification.

c. Cases in which candidates have been accused with the offence and sentenced for 2 or more years are disqualified to contest the elections.

d. With the offence proved by a court of law, a person is not eligible to contest elections for a period of 6 years. The availability of detailed information about the candidates through, media, enables the public to select and elect the candidates having clean records with, service motto.

2. Educational Antecedents: The candidate has to file an affidavit to give information relating to his educational qualifications. Being representative of the people, one has to be educated and able to take part actively in the proceedings of the Legislature, administration and in law-making processes. Though the constitution has not mentioned any minimum educational qualifications for the candidates, this disclosure enables the voters to elect qualified persons.

3. Property Antecedents : Contesting an election is an expensive affair and persons with good education but dearth of funds may hesitate to contest whereas people with money power get elected and may amass more wealth. This leads to corruption. To curb this, the Election Commission has made it mandatory to declare the details of movable and immovable properties of the candidates and their families. This disclosure helps the voter to assess the honesty or otherwise of the candidates.

Nazism was a political ideology rooted in aggressive nationalism and anti-democratic principles. 

Adolf Hitler started it in Germany.

After the Second World War, Asian, African and Latin American countries became independent. They realized that cold war was another face of imperialism and a threat to world peace. The liberated nations decided not to join any of the blocs and formed Non-Aligned Movement.

They realized that weapons and strong military force would be a threat. Only a world without war or conflict would develop economically and socially. The idea of Non-Aligned Movement was formed in Bandung in Indonesia in 1955. The First Conference was held in Belgrade in 1961.

Security council consists 15 members. Among them 5 members are permanent. They are Britain, America, China, France, and Russia.

• Benito Mussolini 
• Black Shirts to suppress the opponents.

Palestine was a part of Turkey till the first world war. But when Turkey was captured, Palestine came under Britain. As the Jews helped Britain in the war, then the foreign secretary Arthur Balfour declared the establishment of Jewish nation in West Asia as a reward. This is Balfour declaration.

Zionism is an international movement with an objective of the establishment of a homeland for the Jews. The cruelty upd assault of Hitler towards Jews intensified the demand for a separate Jewish state. In 1948, Israel was formed. Many wars broke out between Israel and Arab nations. Israel seized Palestine and they were expelled from their homeland. The Palestinian refugees migrated to Arab countries.

PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation) was formed to establish a nation for Palestinians. Yasar Arafat was the President. After a series of blood shed and massacres, Israel agreed to recognize Palestine as a free nation. This agreement was mediated by the U.S in Oslo Pact. But the provisions are yet to be implemented.

Chief Secretary is the head of the Secretariat in every state. He is in charge of the administrative setup. His authority includes all departments of the Secretariat. By reason of his experience and standing, he is able to ease out difficulties and frictions to give general guidance to other officers. Thus he gives leadership to the administrative set up of the state. He maintains rapport between the State government and the Union government and other State governments.

Functions:

The Chief Secretary performs the following functions:

• He is the Principal Adviser to the Chief Minister. 
• He acts as the Cabinet Secretary and attends cabinet meetings. 
• He exercises general supervision and control over the entire Secretariat. 
• He looks after all matters beyond the purview of other secretaries. 
• As chief of all the secretaries, he presides over a large number of committees and is a member of many others. 
• He is the secretary by rotation, of the zonal council of which the state is a member. 
• He has control over the staff attached to the ministers. 
• He is the bridge between that State and Central or other state Governments.
• He receives confidential communication from the Government of India and conveys them to the Chief Minister.

As the heed of dying administrative Machinery, Chief of the Civil Services, Mentor and conscience keeper of Civil services, he plays a significant role in the state administration.

The British government appointed a statutory commission (Simon Commission) in 1927 to enquire into a report of 1919 Act. This was done as a concession to the Indian demand for an early revision of the Act. The Commission headed by Sir John Simon, consisted of seven members from the British parliament, but no Indians.

Answer is Oslo Pact.

• Policy of non-alignment. 
• Anti-apartheid and racial discrimination.

Palestinians became refugees following the formation of Israel. Palestine Liberation Organization was formed with the objective of establishing a nation for the Palestinians.

The words of Benito Mussolini who was the leader of Fascism in Italy.

Sardar Patel took charge of the Indian states Department and V.P. Menon became secretary on 5^th July 1947. They dealt with matters arising between central Government and the Indian states. The biggest individual factor in the above spectacular event was the personality of Sardar Patel.

The success of Integration is attributed to his astute statesmanship, intense patriotism and great administrative skill. He handled the Kings of Princely states with patience, tact and sympathy. He was a man of Iron will. The integration of states is his greatest contribution to independent India.

Even though SAARC was in process from 1983-85, it was established on 8^th December 1985. Its Secretariat is at Katmandu (Nepal.)

Chief Secretary is the head of the Secretariat in every state. He is in charge of the administrative setup. His authority includes all departments of the Secretariat. By reason of his experience and standing, he is able to ease out difficulties and frictions to give general guidance to other officers. Thus he gives leadership to the administrative set up of the state. He maintains rapport between the State government and the Union government and other State governments.

The Chief Secretary performs the following functions:

1. He is the Principal Adviser to the Chief Minister. 

2. He acts as the Cabinet Secretary and attends cabinet meetings. 

3. He exercises general supervision and control over the entire Secretariat.

4. He looks after all matters beyond the purview of other secretaries. 

5. As chief of all the secretaries, he presides over a large number of committees and is a member of many others. 

6. He is the secretary by rotation, of the zonal council of which the state is a member. 

7. He has control over the staff attached to the ministers. 

8. He is the bridge between that State and Central or other state Governments. 

9. He receives confidential communication from the Government of India and conveys them to the Chief Minister.

As the head of the administrative Machinery, Chief of the Civil Services, Mentor and conscience keeper of Civil services, he plays a significant role in the state administration.

Administration is as old as ancient civilizations. It can be traced back to the vedic times. During monarchy, the administration was used to execute efficient and effective functioning of the government, with a view to meet the demands of the people and solve their problems.

In the history of development of Indian administration, we find two unique features with the village as a primary unit of administration and decentralization as its goal. It can therefore be seen that the present administration is based on the foundation of traditional public administration.

U.K. introduced privatization for the first time.

Perestroika means economic rehabilitation and Glasnost means openness in administration.

The Security Council is often described as the enforcement wing (world executive body). It is the most powerful organ of the UNO. Its main A responsibility is to maintain world peace and security. It consists of 15 members. Five of them are permanent members (UK, USA, Russia, France, and China) while the other ten are non-permanent members.

Permanent members have ‘Veto-Power’. Ten Non-permanent members are represented by the elected representatives who are elected by the General Assembly for a term of two years.

The Security Council is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining international peace and security. It has the power to discuss, investigate and make recommendations in this regard. The member states are called upon to settle disputes by peaceful means. It is empowered to decide the measures to be taken to restore international peace.

It also recommends the person to be appointed as Secretary General to the General Assembly. A military committee has been set up to assist the Security Council.

The UN has its own Peace Keeping Force. Each member of the Security Council has one vote. The decisions of the Security Council are binding on all UN members. Mr. Ban- ki-Moon took over office on 1^st January 2007. On 21^st June 2011, he was unanimously re-elected by the General Assembly and will continue to serve until 31^st December 2016.

Privatization is the process of transferring ownership of a business, enterprise, agency, public service or public property from the public sector to private sector.

Bashar-al-Assad.

Causes for Environmental Movement are as follows.

1. To protect the Environmental degradation: The Government of India has taken measures for economic development including industrial and technological development. This has led to industrialization, urbanization and their adverse effects like loss of cultivable land, and also on the fertility of the soil.

2. To protect Mo-diversity: Deforestation for fuel and construction purposes has left the wildlife and birds to become orphan. Hence Chipco, Appico, and Save Western Ghats Movements started.

3. Environment education and consciousness: Living amidst environment, formal education in schools, colleges, and non-governmental organizations have created awarness and consciousness among human beings. Programmes, rallies, and Jathas have gone a long way in this direction.

4. To curb environment decay: The greediness of the people to excavate and exploit resources have resulted in soil erosion, drying up of rivers and reservoirs, pollution of air, water and sound, etc. To maintain equilibrium and to pressurize the people in power to take measures, these movements emerged.

Non-Align Movement.

Discrimination on the basis of colour is called Apartheid.

Article 315 provides for the establishment of the Union Public Service Commission. UPSC is an independent constitutional body entrusted with the work of recruitment on the basis of merit.

1. Composition: At present, the UPSC is composed of a Chairman and 10 members. Members are appointed by the President. It provides for half of the members of the Commission to be administrators with a minimum of the 10 years experience in government service. Nothing is mentioned regarding the qualifications of the remaining members.

2. Tenure: A member of the Union Public Service Commission holds office for a period of 6 years or till he attains the age of 65 years, whichever comes earlier. Chairman or members of the commission are not eligible for re-appointment after retirement. The Chairman of the UPSC is also not eligible for further employment under Central or State Governments, however, a member of the UPSC may be appointed as a Chairman of the UPSC or the state Public Service Commission.

3. Removal: The Chairman and members of the UPSC can be removed from the office only by on order of the President, on the ground of misbehaviour proved by the Supreme Court. All these provisions have been made to make the Commission an independent and impartial body.

Functions:

Article 320 of the Indian Constitution enumerates the functions of the UPSC :

1. To conduct examinations for appointment to the services of the Union and All India Service. 

2. To assist two or more states, on request for joint recruitment for any services.

3. To advise the government on matters relating to the methods of recruitment, promotions, transfers, disciplinary actions, and inter-service matters. 

4. To present annual report regarding its working to the President. 

5. To exercise such additional functions as provided by an act of Parliament. 

6. To serve all or any needs of the State Government on request by the Governor and with the approval of the President.

1. To conduct examinations for appointment to the services of Union and All India Services, 

2. To submit the annual report to the President.

In 1899, the Hindu Widows Home was established at Poona.

The 1935 act contained 321 articles and 13 schedules.

In 1972 Shimla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan

The Hindu Widow’s Home was established in Poona in 1899.

According to E.A. Gladden – “Civil Service is a regulated administrative system organised as a service of inter-related officers”.

In 1997-2002  the duration of Nine five year plan.

 In 1957 Europen union formed.

According of F.A.Ogg “Coalition is a system where members of multiple political parties unite to form a government or Ministry”.

1. Protection against Domestic Violence Act 2005. 

2. Abolition of Child Marriage Act 2005.

In 1992  European Union formed.

After the second world war two blocks emerged on the basis of democracy and communism, it is called power block. Example: America and USSR.

Nation-building is the process of uniting people with a sense of nationalism, building of nation power and national institutions, achieving socio-economic, educational and scientific developments, National reconstruction and all-round development.