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(c) Technological environment

(a) The Prime Minister

Functions of corporation: 

The functions of corporation may be broadly classified into 3 groups :

1. General functions 

2. Compulsory functions 

3. Optional functions

1. General functions: The 1976 Act stipulates certain general functions to the corporation. These functions are routine in nature. Management of administration of the corporation Preparation of budget Seek approval of budget.

2. Compulsory Functions: The corporation is duty-bound to perform certain functions designated as compulsory. Following are the compulsory functions of corporation. Construction and conservation of public roads and streets.

• Providing electricity to public roads, streets and markets 
• Making arrangements for conservancy, drainage and removal of garbage. 
• Providing of safe drinking water and water for other purposes. 
• Naming and numbering of roads. 
• Construction and maintenance of pubic markets. 
• Prevent diseases through effective public health system
• Control over construction of buildings through effective clearance system. 
• Prevent adulteration of food products , milk and pharmaceuticals. 
• Registration and maintenance of birth and death records. 
• Establishment and maintenance of primary schools. 
• Planting and conservation of saplings 
• Construction and maintenance of public gardens and playgrounds. 
• Construction and maintenance of burial grounds. 
• Protection of public property and public monuments.

3. Optional functions: Optional functions are discretionary in nature. They can be undertaken only if the time and money permits. Following are the optional functions of the corporations.

• Establishment of an efficient transport system. 
• Establish associations for the welfare of orphans and the destitute. 
• Establishment and maintenance of child welfare centers. 
• Construction and conservation of swimming pools and bathing Ghats. 
• Conduct surveys of land and buildings 
• Construction and maintenance of museums, art galleries, and gardens with district plants. Establishment and 
• maintenance of hospitals for animals 
• Raise money for providing relief during natural calamities such as earthquake, drought, etc., 
• Improve slums by developing them. 
• Construct houses for the poor, homeless and the destitute. 
• Construction and maintenance of water troughs for animals. 
• Support environment conservation programmes through planting trees etc.

Answer is (d) i, ii & iii

1. Legislature is the most important institution in a democratic system of government. It is the law making organ of the government. It brings the will of the people into laws.

2. The importance of the legislature is increasing because the executive and judiciary have to work on the basis of the laws made by the legislature. 

3. The legislature is primary and most powerful organ of the government. It controls the executive especially in the parliamentary form of government. 

4. It sanctions the budget and controls the national finances. In a parliamentary system, the real executive is chosen from and is also controlled by it.

1. The first of Constituent Assembly was held on 9^th December, 1946. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was made as the President of the Constituent Assembly. The historic objectives resolution was moved in the Government Assembly by Nehru on 13 December 1946. The beautifully worded draft of the objectives resolution cast the horoscope of the sovereign Democratic Republic. 

2. The Constituent Assembly appointed a number of committees to deal with the framing of the constitution. The committees worked hard and produced valuable reports. These reports were considered by the Constituent Assembly and later considered by the drafting committee.

3. On 29^th August 1947, the Constituent Assembly appointed a Drafting Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to scrutinize the draft of the constitution, prepared by constitutional advisor B. N. Rau.

4. The constitution of India was drafted by the Drafting Committee and was submitted to the president of the Constituent Assembly on 21^th February, 1948. A large number of comments, criticism, and suggestions for the amendment of the draft were received. The Drafting „ Committee decided to issue a report of the draft constitution and was submitted to the President of the Assembly on 26″’ October, 1948.

5. The second reading of the constitution was completed on 16^th Nov, 1949 and on the next day the Constituent Assembly took up the third reading of the constitution. It was adopted on 26^th Nov, 1949. The Constituent Assembly accomplished the tremendous task of framing the constitution in 2 years 11 months and 18 days.

6. The constitution was finally signed by members of the Constituent Assembly. The same constitution came into force on 26^th Jan 1950.

7. Besides framing the constitution, the Constituent Assembly performed several other important functions like passing certain statues, adopting the national flag, declaring the national anthem, ratifying the decision in regard to the membership of the common wealth and election of the first president of the Republic. The draft of the constitution contained 18 parts 8 schedules and 445 articles is considered as tlie most bulky and lengthiest in the world.

Answer is (d) NAM

The order issues to meet unforeseen situations when parliament is not in session is called ordinance. Head of the executive promulgtes the ordinance.

It is the third branch of government, which settles disputes. It is there for administration of justice. 

1. Regulation of Civic Behavior: It is the responsibility of the judiciary that if anyone, however big and mighty, does not follow the rules and regulations prescribed by the constitution, he is liable for punishment depending upon the magnitude of crime.

2. Protection of rights and liberties: The Judicial system is not meant to punish only the individuals and groups but also the government. If the government violates the rights of the people, people can go to a court of law and seek suitable relief. This upholds the principle that all are equal in the eye of law and all are treated alike.

3. Instill confidence of the people: The people look up to the judiciary as a ‘neutral umpire’ deciding a case purely on merit but not on any other consideration. A common man looks up to judiciary as the ultimate lamp of justice. If the judiciary fails to stand up to the expectations of the people by being partisan to any influence or power, people stop believing not only the judiciary but also in the constitution – the fundamental law of the land. So, it is the responsibility of judiciary to make people trust the judiciary and importantly respect the constitution.

Two levels of liberty are Negative and Positive.

A constitution which is evolved over a period of time is called unwritten constitution.

Eg: England.

1. Right to equality. 

2. Right to culture and education.

1. Concentration of political power in a single person or a party, 

2. Suppress individual liberty. 

Every individual should be given equal opportunities for self development is called equality. 

Dr Rajendra Prasad was the President of the Constituent Assembly.

The Harm Principle was proposed by J.S. Mill in his famous book “On Liberty”. It says: “The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.”

a) Dominance 

b) External controls 

c) Social and Economic Inequalities

a. The relation between law and liberty is a controversial issue. 

b. Some thinkers believe that law & liberty are ideas opposed to each other.

c. The more laws, the less freedom. 

d. Enforcing law means curtailing freedom. In Ancient Greece, people with their wrong reasoning maintained this view. 

e. The Laissez-faire theory prevalent in the 18th and centuries also held this view.

f. Anarchists tried to do away with government to ensure full freedom to individuals. 

g. In opposition to this, law was considered as a condition for freedom. 

h. Freedom is what we enjoy when we obey the law of the nation. 

i. Excess of laws and harmful laws adversely affect freedom.

All the adult citizens can exercise their voting power without the discrimination jof caste, creed, religion, gender, it is called Universal Adult Franchise.

Executive is the creation of Legislature and is responsible to it, it is called Parliamentary government. 

1. Natural Equality : It implies that Nature has created all men equally and all should be treated alike. Yet, absolute equality cannot be found. If we look around we find that men . differ in their height, intelligence, physical capacity, complexion, etc., but in the wider context, it implies that all man-made and artificial inequalities should be removed by the laws of the state.

2. Civil Equality: It implies that all are equal before law and entitled equal protection and opportunities. All citizens irrespective of their status, colour, gender, class have to be treated equally and no discrimination of any kind should be made. The right to civil equality is the basic principle of all modem democratic systems. For eg; Equality in matters of life, education, forming association etc,

3. Political equality: It ensures citizen’s right to participate in the activities of the state without any discrimination on the ground 6f caste, colour, creed, gender, education, class etc. The doors of power are kept open to all and all have to enjoy similar political rights. It implies all citizens enjoy equality in matters of voting, contesting for election, criticise the government and to hold public offices.

4. Economic equality: Political equality becomes real only when it is accompanied by economic equality. In modem times economic equality has gained greater importance. It means removal of inequalities of wealth and no concentration of economic power in the hands of a few. 

Basic needs and minimum wage to all are assured. Otherwise, small number of rich would exploit large number of poor. The idea of equality is fundamentally a levelling process. It emphasizes civil, economic and political equality to all and to enjoy rights and discharge duties for the development of individual and nation.

Biogeochemical cycles are also known as cycles of matter as these cycles link together the living component i.e., organisms and the abiotic features on Earth through the movement of nutrients and elements.

Freedom means providing an atmosphere where a person has opportunities to develop his individuality. It is when a person can take independent decisions and act independently we say there is freedom. A person should not be controlled by external forces. Freedom also means when persons are able to increase their capabilities and qualities. Society must provide an atmosphere where the Nation, Community, Groups, and individuals can develop properly. Only in a sovereign nation, individuals can get freedom. So for the freedom of individuals freedom of the nation is inevitable.

Freedom means free from all kinds of control. If this is put into practice, there will be jungle law which is might is right. The strong will dominate the weak and the strongest man will have to be revered by all in the society. Since this negative concept of freedom is not acceptable, the nation has to control freedom. The positive concept of freedom is the removal of obstacles. Negative freedom will lead the nation to an undesirable state. Positive freedom will help in the progress of the nation and the protection of the rights of all individuals.

A parliamentary form of government is characterized by the direct responsibility of executive to legislature which lasts as long as it enjoys the confidence of legislature. The parliamentary government system which first began in England (Great Britain) is also called as ‘Cabinet government and responsible government’.

1. Nominal Executive: The presence of a nominal executive is- a primary feature of parliamentary government. Though all powers of the state are vested in his name by the constitution, it is in fact exercised by the real executive consisting of Prime minister and council of ministers. For example, the Queen of England and the President of India are the nominal executives.

2. Collective responsibility: A parliamentary government is directly responsible to legislature and stays in office as long as it enjoys confidence of the lower house. A decision taken by cabinet is binding on ministers and they should defend it in and out of parliament. Together we sink or sail” is the key statement of parliamentary government.

3. Individual Responsibility: Each minister will be in charge of a ministry and is wholly responsible for all decisions of the ministry to the legislature. Parliamentary government and individual responsibility go hand in hand.

4. Political Homogeneity: In a parliamentary government, all ministers belong to the same party or alliance having common policies, programmes, values and beliefs and work under a common minimum programme (CMP). As a result, it is not difficult to secure cooperation and coordination. In case, a government consists of divergent policies and beliefs, frequent quarrels, squabbling, and infighting brings down the government. It defeats the very purpose of government formation.

5. Membership of parliament: In a parliamentary government, a minister must be a member of either house of parliament. On becoming a minister he must become a member of either house within 180 days. Otherwise, he will have to step down from office. This is to ensure individual responsibility to the parliament.

6. Oath of Secrecy: It is the responsibility as well as duty of the cabinet to protect official secrets. Cabinet decision should not become public without authorization from parliament. Ministers are administered the ‘oath of secrecy’ to maintain secrecy of cabinet decisions. The purpose is to avoid any person or a group taking undue advantage of the leaked information.

7. Leadership of the Prime Minister: In parliamentary government, Prime Minister is the backbone of the cabinet. He acts as the spokesperson of the government by defending it in and out of the government. He acts as the advisor to the president in summoning, proroguing and dissolving the parliament. The Prime minister exercises independence in appointing ministers, expanding the ministry and allocation of portfolios.

8. Effective opposition: Opposition party is called “the government in waiting”. In parliamentary government, opposition parties follow the day today administration and bring before the people the failures of the government from time to time. During elections, they seek mandate on the basis of the failures of the government.

Thus, opposition acts’ as a watchdog of the government. In fact, in Britain, the shadow cabinet functions just like the government but without powers. They too have separate departments to monitor developments in respective areas. 

a. Presidential Government: In Presidential government, the Executive is not responsible to the legislature. It is based on the principle of ‘ Separation of powers’. It is known as non-responsible system or fixed executive system. E.g. USA.

1. Separation of powers: The Presidential government is based on Montesquieu concept of “separation of powers”. The concept of separation powers contends that the legislature, executive and judiciary must be independent of each other and function independently. Legislature performs the task of law making, executive law implementation and judiciary interpretation of laws.

2. Checks and Balances: Presidential government is based on checks and balances. Though the legislature, executive and judiciary function independently, complete separation is not only desirable but also impractical. To maintain the exercise of power balanced, controlled and widespread each organ is given a fair degree of power in one another’s functional area.

3. Executive is not responsible to legislature: The president in U.S.A is directly elected by the people and hence is not responsible to legislature! The president can’t participate in the proceedings of the congress. He can neither initiate a bill nor pilots it. The President is not accountable to anyone but the constitution and the people.

4. Real Executive: In presidential government, the president is directly elected by the people. The president is not only the real executive but also the head of government. He is directly responsible for all happenings in the country.

5. Secretaries directly responsible to president: The secretaries known as presidents’. ‘Brain Trust’ are appointed by the president and stay in office as long as they enjoy the confidence of the president. The President may remove any secretary without assigning any reason. Secretaries are neither responsible to congress nor to the people but to the president. The President can hire or fire secretaries.

6. Fixed Tenure: The President does not depend on Congress for his survival. He is directly elected for a period of 4 years and lasts his full term. He cannot be removed from office except on grounds of inefficiency and proven misbehavior through an impeachment motion.

Liberalism comes from the Latin word ‘liberalism which means a free man. Liberalism was a political theory that became popular in the 19^th century and it considered freedom like oxygen to life. It gave great importance to personal freedom. Liberals supported a person’s right to hold fast to his opinions and beliefs and to express them freely. 

Modern liberalism gives individual the primary place. This is what makes liberalism different from others. Liberals think that institutions like farrying, group or community do not have any existence of their own. They give greater importance to personal freedom than to values like Equality. They look at political power with suspicion and anxiety. J.S. Mill, T.H. Green and Mahadev Govind Ranade are the protagonists of modern liberalism.

"Long walk to Freedom" is a autobiography of Nelson Mandela.

Yes, there is. The control over the freedom of individuals can be in the form of external control or in the form of authority. These controls can be enforced by the use force. Or they can be brought through government laws. Ruling authorities will have the backing of the use of force. If the government is democratic, people can exercise some control over the rulers. That is why it is said that the most important means of protecting people’s freedom is democratic rule.

The members of a society where there are only very limited constraints, the individuals can develop their capacities to the fullest extent. Such a society will be called a free society. The constraints on liberty can be in the forms of external control or dominance. As a result of social evils like casteism also there can be controls for freedom. Serious economic inequality in the society can also bring in such controls. Why does control become necessary? 

• We can’t live in this world without some kind of control. 
• There will be differences of opinion among people regarding ideas and concepts. 
• There can be a hundred and one reasons for having differences in the society. 
• These differences may lead into open confrontations. People may fight on the roads as they drive. There can be quarrels about parking space.
• There can be fights regarding house or land. There can be differences of opinion even about presenting a drama. Things like this can lead to conflicts, physical violence, and even murder. 
• Therefore to settle arguments and control violence, every society needs some kind of control mechanism
• An ideal society is the one in which people can retain their ideas and by making their own conditions live as they wish.

The scientific method consists of six steps: 

• Define purpose. 
• Construct hypothesis. 
• Test the hypothesis and collect data. 
• Analyze data. 
• Draw conclusion. 
• Communicate results.

Freedom of expression means the ability to speak one’s opinion openly without any external pressure and without any fear of external intervention. For example, our ability to speak openly our opinion about the Lok Pal Bill.

In federal representation the state is important. In India, the members of the Rajyasabha are indirectly elected for 6 yrs but 1/3^rd of them will retire even. 2 yrs. The Rajyasabha has 250 members out of whom 12 are nominated by the president for their contributions to science, literature, art and social service. The remaining 238 members are indirectly elected by the state legislative assemblies through a system of proportional representation.

The powers and functions of Rajyasabha are as follows:

1. Legislative functions: Oh legislative matters, the Rajyasabha enjoys powers with the Loksabha except in case of a Money Bill or Financial Bill. Nonmoney Bill can originate in Rajyasabha and must get a 2/3 majority in the House and then proceeds to the Loksabha. The approval of both Houses is essential for a bill to become a law. In case of disagreement between the two Houses on a bill, both the houses sit on a joint sitting presided by the speaker and the deadlock is resolved by a majority of the total number of members of both the houses present and voting.

2. Financial functions: On the financial front, the Rajyasabha virtually has no powers. The procedure to deal with Money bills clearly states that a Money bill or financial bill cannot originate in the Rajyasabha. The Rajyasabha may discuss and suggest changes but have no right to reject or amend a Money Bill. It is left to the Loksabha to accept or reject its recommendations. In case, the Rajyasabha does not send back a Money bill back to the Loksabha within 14 days from the date of receipt of the bill, the bill is deemed passed, in the original form, by both the Houses.

3. Control over the executive: The Rajyasabha’s hold over the executive is very minimal because the executive is not directly responsible to the upper house. However, it can seek information, and make clarifications on various policy matters. On issues of national and local importance, the members can grill the executive during debates and discussions during the Question Hour, the Adjournment motion, the Zero Hour, the Cut-Motion, Call- attention Motion, etc.

4. Constituent functions: The Rajyasabha enjoys full powers with Loksabha in executing constituent functions. An amendment to provisions of the constitution can be initiated in either House of the parliament and must be passed by a 2/3 majority’ in both the Houses present and voting. If Rajyasabha does not pass an amendment bill, the amendment Bill stands defeated. In some special provisions apart from the 2/3 majority in both house of parliament and ratification by not less than 1/2 of the states is necessary. 

5. Electoral functions: The Rajyasabha shares the privilege of electing the highest constitutional functionaries, the President and Vice-president. The President is elected by an electoral college consisting of the members of parliament along with the members of the State legislative assemblies. The members of both the houses of parliament elect the Vice-president.

6. Judicial functions: The impeachment move against the President may be initiated in either house of the parliament. If Loksabha prefers the charge, Rajyasabha investigates the charge and passes a resolution by a 2/3 majority of the total membership of the house, then the President stands impeached.

There is no need for an impeachment against the Vice president who may be removed by a resolution of Rajyasabha passed by the majority of its members and consented to it by Loksabha. The Rajyasabha also participates in the removal of the highest constitutional functionaries such as the Chief Election Commissioner, the Vigilance Commissioner, etc.

7. Miscellaneous functions: The Rajyasabha performs other functions as well as

• By a resolution Rajyasabha can create one or more All India Services. 
• Continuation of emergency beyond the specified time must come before the Rajyasabha and Loksabha. 
• Orders made by the President suspending enforcement of fundamental rights is required to be laid before the Rajyasabha and Loksabha. 
• According to Article 249, the Rajyasabha by a resolution can ask the parliament to legislate on certain subjects in the State list.

The features of written constitution are explained below. 

A written constitution is written in the document by the constituent assembly.

• It is deliberately framed by the constitutional experts. 
• It came in to effect from a particular date. 
• In the written form of constitution, all the provisions relating to the organization of the government, rights, and 
• duties of the citizens are clearly mentioned. 
• In this system the amendment procedure is very difficult and rigid. 
• Written constitution provides the provisions of independence of judiciary. 
• In the written constitution all provisions are clearly mentioned and the contents are in precise. 

The features of unwritten constitution are explained as below.

• An unwritten constitution is not written by the constitution assembly but evolved over a period of time.
• It is not deliberately framed by the experts but grown by customs, traditions and usages. 
• An unwritten constitution has not come in to effect from a particular date. 
• In un written constitution the provisions with relates to the organization of the government, rights and duties 
• of the citizens are the fruits of customs traditions and usages. 
• In this system the amendment procedure is very easy and flexible An un written constitution is not clear and unsettled.

Role of civil services in executing policies:

• Basis of Government: There can be no government without administrative machinery. 
• Implementing Laws & Policies: Civil services are responsible for implementing laws and executing policies framed by the government.
• Policy Formulation: The civil service is chiefly responsible for policy formulation as well. The civil service officers advise ministers in this regard and also provides them with facts and ideas.
• Stabilising Force: Amidst political instability, the civil service offers stability and permanence. While governments and ministers can come and go, the civil services is a permanent fixture giving the administrative set up a sense of stability and continuity.
• Instruments of Social Change & Economic Development: Successful policy implementation will lead to positive changes in the lives of ordinary people. It is only when the promised goods and services reach the intended beneficiaries, a government can call any scheme successful. The task of actualising schemes and policies fall with the officers of the civil services.
• Welfare Services: The services offer a variety of welfare schemes such as providing social security, the welfare of weaker and vulnerable sections of society, old-age pensions, poverty alleviation, etc.
• Developmental Functions: The services perform a variety of developmental functions like promoting modern techniques in agriculture, promoting the industry, trade, banking functions, bridging the digital divide, etc.
• Administrative Adjudication: The civil services also perform quasi-judicial services by settling disputes between the State and the citizens, in the form of tribunals, etc.

Nitrogen fixation is carried out naturally in soil by microorganisms termed diazotrophs that include bacteria such as Azotobacter and archaea. Nitrogen fixation occurs between some termites and fungi. It occurs naturally in the air by means of NOx production by lightning.

• Selection of judges regardless of their political affiliation. 
• Appointment of judges by the Chief Executive. 
• Long and Security of tenure. 
• Salaries and allowances are paid from Consolidated Fund. 
• Bar on practice after retirement. 
• Separation of judiciary from the executive and legislature. 
• Impartiality in the administration of justice. 
• Avoiding ambiguity in the judgement. 
• Appointment of highly qualified judges and making judicial process less expensive.

Powers and functions of the president of India are as follows: In the Parliamentary government, the position of the President is that of a respectful figurehead, representing the honor and dignity of the people of India. It has become a fashion to label the President as “a rubber stamp’, the impression is that he does nothing but signing bills brought before him. But there are occasions that offer scope for independent decisions. When no party enjoys a majority, the power to appoint Prime minister rests with the President (Ar- tide 75).

In case of sudden demise of Prime minister, if the party fails to elect its leader, at the earliest, President may appoint a person of his choice as the Prime minister. Importantly, if a government loses majority and recommends for the dissolution of the house (Lok Sabha), it is pure power of the President to dissolve the parliament or not (Article 85).

The powers and functions of the President are as follows:

1.Legislative Functions: The legislative functions are detailed below: 

1. To summon, prorogue and dissolve the Parliament. 

2. The President enjoys the power to address the Parliament. It is normally done after general elections or the first session of the year. It is generally called Presidential speech. This inaugural speech outlines the objectives and priorities of the government. 

3. In passing the bills, if a deadlock arises due to non-agreement between two houses of the parliament, the President may call for a joint session of both the houses. 

4. The President may address Lok sabha or Rajya sabha or both any time and also may send a message to both the houses of parliament to look into a bill.

5. In the considered view of the President, if he is satisfied that the Anglo-Indian community is not adequately represented, he may nominate 12 members to Rajya Sabha and 2 members to Lok sabha. 

6. Prior permission of the President is essential while dealing with bills relating to the formation of new states, alteration of boundaries and some special bills like the finance bills. 

7. No bill can become a law without the assent of the President. He enjoys the power to withhold a bill. This power is called ‘Veto power’. However, he cannot refuse his assent for finance bills. But he can withhold assent for a non money bill. But if the same is resubmitted for signature even without changes, he cannot refuse to sign it.

8. The President enjoys the power of issuing Ordinance when the parliament is not in session. It will have the same power and effect similar to that of a law made by the Parliament provided the same is ratified by the Parliament within 6 weeks of its passage. Otherwise, it ceases to be a law and is considered null and void or zero.

There is a legislative assembly for every state. The number of members depends upon the population of the state. But it can not have less than 60 and more than 500 members. The members are chosen by direct election by people of the state. The governor has been given the power to nominate one or two members of the Anglo Indian community legislative assembly is five years.

Original Jurisdiction: Article 131 of the constitution deals with the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. The original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is so exclusive that no court in India can take up cases falling under the original jurisdiction.

The original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is purely federal in character. Matters relating to the problems and disputes arising between the union and the states or between the states are taken up by the Supreme Court. The disputes entertained under the original jurisdiction are

• A dispute involving the Government of India Vs the state of Union of India. 
• A dispute involving the Government of India plus one or more states V s one or more states. 
• A dispute involving one or more states on one side Vs one or more states on the other.

Aristotle described political science as a ‘master science’ which made it perhaps the greatest contribution to the making of political science scientific. Hie term “Scope” refers to the subject or the boundaries of a particular branch of knowledge. There is no perfect agreement among the political thinkers as to the problems, which come under the study of political science. Broadly speaking, there are three groups of writers holding different views on the scope of political science. 

The first group of writers like Garies, Gamer, Goodnow, and Bluntschli restricted the scope of political science only to the study of the state.

The second group of writers like Prof. Sheley and Dr. Stephen Leacock said that political science deals with government only.

The third group of writers like Gettell, Gilchrist, Paul Janet, and Prof. Laski maintained that the scope of political science extends to both state and government.Prof. Laski maintains that the state, in reality, means the government. We may agree with the third group of writers that political science is a study of both state and government is the steering wheel of the ship of the state. There can be no state without a government, the state remains the central subject of our study, and the whole mechanism of government revolves around it.

Scope according to the UNESCO; the international Political Science Association at its Paris Conference in 1948 discussed the scope of political science and marked out its subject matter as follows:

1. Political Theory: Political Theory, History of Political Ideas.

2. Government: The Constitution, the Government-Regional and Local Government, Public Administration, Economics and Social functions of government, Comparative political institutions.

3. Parties, Groups and Public Opinion: Political Parties, Group and Associations, Citizen Participation in Government and administration, Public Opinion.

4. International Relations: International relations, International organization, and Administration, International Law.

1. The Civil Courts: 

THE DISTRICT CIVIL COURT: 

The State Government in consultation with the high court establishes a District Court. The district court is the highest civil court in the district. In exercises both judicial and administrative powers. It has the power of supervision over the courts under its control and has both original and appellate jurisdiction.

The court of the district judge is located at the district headquarters. It has the powers of typing both civil as well as criminal cases. Thus he is designated as the district and sessions judge. The Governor in consultation with the high court appoints judges to the district court.

1. At the Taluk level, the court of civil judge (senior division) and the court of civil judge (junior division) are presided over by a principal civil judge and additional civil judge and have jurisdiction over every revenue taluk of the district. 

2. The Munsiff courts at Taluk level. 

3. The small cause courts function at metropolitan cities and it is presided by the most junior magistrate. 

2. The Criminal Court:

• District Session’s court – It is the highest criminal court in every district. The District Civil Court Judge also heads this court but he is called a Session’s Court Judge. It deals with cases of criminal nature like robbery and murder. Sessions court awards punishment, including death sentence, which should be approved by the high court.
• First Additional District and Sessions court. 
• Second Additional District and Sessions court. 
• Chief Judicial Magistrate Court. 
• First Additional Chief Judicial Magistrate Court. 
• Second Additional Chief Judicial Magistrate Court.

1. To realize social good: the existence of the state enables the realization of social good.

2. Protection of rights and duties: rights and duties enjoyed by men today can exist only within a state. It also promotes a smooth relationship between the government and the governed.

3. Protection to life and property: state is the basic structure for the maintenance of law and order, so the property of the people is also protected by the state. 

4. Protection of Weaker section of Society: The state also protects the weaker section of the society like women, children, and minorities.

5. State creates Order in Society: A society without a state will be one of anarchy. Political organization is necessary 7 to prevent anarchy.

6. State creates order and Progress m the world: The conception of the state is not only important within a state to create order but even outside the state in the international sphere.

The essentials of an ideal constitution are explained as below: 

1. It should be definite : An ideal constitution should not be vague but clearly narrate the provisions which relates to the organization of the government. The principles should be precise and clear.

2. It should be comprehensive: An ideal constitution must be comprehensive enough to mention the functions of the government and rights, duties of the citizens. The constitution should not be too big but include all the information on the government.

3. Method of amendment: An ideal constitution should possess the method of amendment. As the social condition of the people is going on change, the constitution must also undergo change. It should represent the future needs of the future generation. 

4. It should correspond to reality : An ideal constitution should correspond to the real, conditions obtained within the state, otherwise, it cannot work properly.

The features of unwritten constitution are explained below. 

1. An unwritten constitution is not written by the constitution assembly but evolved over a period of time. 

2. It is not deliberately framed by the experts but grown by customs, traditions, and usages. 

3. An unwritten constitution has not come in to effect from a particular date. 

4. In un written constitution the provisions with relates to the organization of the government, rights, and duties of the citizens are the fruits of customs traditions and usages.

The Characteristics of constitutional government are as below 

1. Supremacy of the constitution: In this system all the powers of government are laid down in accordance with the provisions of constitution. Government should function within the framework of the constitution.

2. Equality before law: Here law will apply to all the people equally. The benefits of law can be enjoyed by all the citizens irrespective of caste, creed, religion, social and economic status.

3. Individual liberty: In the constitutional government, all the citizens are enjoying the fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitutions. So constitution provides the rights to all the people and ensures protection.

4. Protects public interest: All people in the country should be lived under the purview’ of constitution. Violation of the provisions of constitution invites severe punishment. So constitution safeguards the interests of the people by protecting them from all the outside aggression.

1. Natural Equality: It implies that nature has created all men equal. It can also be defined that it insists on removing all man-made and artificial inequalities and treat all equally.

2. Civil and legal Equality: Implies that all are equal before law and all are protected equally irrespective of caste, class, color, race, etc.,

3. Political Equality: Implies that all the citizens, irrespective any type of difference are entitled to participate in the affairs of state. All have equal voice in the government. It is based on principle of universal adult Franchise.

4. Economic Equality: Implies removal of inequalities based on wealth and insists on certain minimum standard of income to all to meet their basic needs.5. Social Equality: Implies every individual without any discrimination must be given equal opportunity for the development of their personalities. 

The features of written constitution are explained below. 

• A written constitution is written in the document by the constituent assembly. 
• It is deliberately framed by the constitutional experts. 
• It came in to effect from a particular date. 
• In the written form of constitution, all the provisions relating to the organization of the government, rights, and 
• duties of the citizens are clearly mentioned. 
• In this system the amendment procedure is very difficult and rigid. 
• Written constitution provides the provisions of independence of judiciary. 
• In the written constitution all provisions are clearly mentioned and the contents are precise.