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Portuguese sailor Vasco-da-Gama.

British and French were the rivals in the Carnatic wars.

Sir Thomas Roe was the British Ambassador sent by King James -1 of England to the court of Jahangir in 1615 C.E.

Gandhi ji an Era 1C- 1920 to 1947: The Montague – Chelmsford reforms (1919) and subsequent events like the Rowlatt Act, the Jalian Walabagh tragedy made Gandhiji to plunge into the National movement. 1 le advocated the policy of Satyagraha which was Non-violent and Non-Cooperation to the British Government.

1. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-22): A special session of the Congress was held at Calcutta in September 1920. Gandhi ji proposed the Non-Cooperation Movement. His plan of launching a nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement was accepted by the session. The response of the people to the call was unprecedented. Students and teachers came out of Schools and Colleges and national Institutions like Kashi Vidyapeetha, Jamiya Miliya Islamiya etc., also joined the movement.

Members of the council tendered their resignations. Congress took some constructive measures and Hindu – Muslim unity was stressed. Foreign goods were boycotted and were collected and burnt at public places. This created nationalistic awareness among people, who began, to use ‘Swadeshi’ and wearing khadi became a symbol of National pride.

2. The Chowri – Chowra incident: 5^th February 1922: Non Cooperation Movement shook the foundation of the British Empire in India. Gandhiji toured the whole country to motivate people. The Viceroy, Lord Curzon took steps to curb the movement. Non Cooperation participants along with Gandhiji were sent to prison. A violent mob at Chowri Chowra (U.R) set fire to the police station on 5^th Feb 1922. In this incident, 22 policemen were killed. Immediately Gandhiji called off the movement.

3. The Swaraj Party -1923: Congress leaders like C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru were dissatisfied about the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement and they wanted to end the boycott to the legislature and wanted to contest elections. But Congress rejected the proposal to contest elections So, C. R. Das and Motilal Nehru founded the ‘Swaraj Party’. Their aim was to achieve Independence by radical but constitutional methods.

4. Simon Commission in 1927: The British Government appointed the Simon Commission to placate the agitating Indians and make recommendations for further reforms. As the Commission did not have any indian representative in it, it was boycotted by the Congress. The Congress organised a black flag demonstration with the slogan ‘Simon go back’.

5. Nehru Report and Poorna Swaraj (1929): The British challenged the Indians to provide an alternative proposal acceptable to all the political parties. The All Parties Conference took up the challenge and appointed a committee under Motilal Nehru. The Committee submitted its report in 1928. Differences arose with regard to the communal representation between parties like the Muslim League, the Hindu Malta Sabha and the Sikhs. Communalists also were unhappy with the Nehru report, and the British ignored the same.

At the Indian National Congress session held at Lahore in December 1929 presided by Jawaharlal Nehru, a resolution of complete Independence of India as its goal (Poorna Swaraj) was adopted. It announced the celebration of 26^th January 1930 as Independence day and authorized Gandhiji to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930 : In the 1929 Lahore Congress session, it was decided to start the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. In order to overthrow the British, many methods were adopted. Gandhiji placed 11 demands before the British and set 31^st January 1930 as the deadline to accept or reject the demands. Without any positive response, the British nationalized the production of Salt.

Gandhiji started the Civil Disobedience Movement through the ‘Salt March or Dandi March’ on 12^th March 1930 from Sabarmati Ashram and reached Dandi on 5^th April 1930. On 6^th April 1930, Gandhiji and his followers made salt from the seawater, violating the salt laws. The salt satyagraha was carried out throughout India. The Government took repressive measures. Gandhiji and many other leade is were put behind bars. Salt became a symbol of our National Pride.

The first Round Table Conference 1930-31: Muslim League, Hindu Maha Sabha, Liberals and the Princes of various States attended it. The conference could not achieve much without the participation of the Indian National Congress which had boycotted it. The British unconditionally released Gandhiji and the other members of the Congress working committee (CEC) from prison. A pact was made between Gandhiji and Viceroy Lord Irwin. Irwin agreed to withdraw all repressive measures relating to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Gandhiji demanded the formation of a responsible Government. The signing of the Gandhi – Irwin Pact also known as the ‘Delhi Pact’ was done on 14th February Gandhiji on behalf of the Congress withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Second Round Table Conference 1931 : Gandhiji attended the second Round Table Conference at London as the sole representative of the Congress. The session soon got deadlocked on the question of the minorities. Separate electorates were being demanded by the Muslims and the oppressed classes. Gandhiji claimed the untouchables to be Hindus and not to be treated an minorities and no special electorates to be provided to them or to the Muslims.

The British P.M. Ramsay Macdonald announced separate electorates to the Muslims and the untouchables, which was called as the ‘Communal Award’. This resulted in serious differences between Gandhiji and Ambedkar. This issue was finally settled amicably with the ‘Poona Pact’ signed between the two stalwarts in 1932.

3^rd Round Table Conference 1932: This conference was held at London in 1932. Congress refused to participate in it and the conference failed. The only important result of the discussions of the Conference was the passing of the Government of India Act 1935. This Act provided for All India Federation and Provincial Governments. Gandhiji launched a movement with Ambedkar to eradicate untouchability from India.

Second World War and National Movement in 1939: The second world war broke out in 1939. India was dragged into the war without any consultation. The Congress refused any kind of cooperation. All the Congress Ministries resigned in 1939. Gandhiji launched individual Satyagraha against the British.

The British tided to enlist the Indian support by creating differences between the Muslim League and the Congress. Muslim League adopted the Pakistan resolution in 1940. Viceroy Linlithgow announced that India would get Dominion status and establishment of constituent Assembly after the war and requested the Indian public to support the British in the war.

Cripps Mission 1942: The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to negotiate with the Indian leaders. He proposed that Dominion status and an Interim Government of Indians to administer on all matters except defence, to be granted to India after the war. Gandhiji described Cripps’ offer as “a post-dated cheque of a drowning Bank”.

Quit India Movement in 1942: The All India Congress Committee met in Bombay and passed the Quit India resolution on 5^th August 1942. It was declared that the immediate ending of the British rule in India was an urgent necessity. Gandhiji gave the call of ‘Do or Die’ to Indians. The British Government arrested the Congress leaders including Gandhiji and people were stunned. They d;d not know what to do next. As a result people took to violence.

They attacked Police stations, Post offices, Railway stations etc., They cut off telegraph and telephone wires and railway lines. They burnt Government buildings and Railway carnages were put on fire. The Government adopted strong measures of repression and more than 60,000 people were arrested. More than 1000 people died in the police and military firing.

The Cabinet Mission 1946: During his Prime Ministership, Clement Atlee deputed a Commission to India in 1946. (Cripps, Lawrence and A. V. Alexander were its members) Its objective was to concede independence to India and transfer powers. The Cabinet Mission held discussions and rejected the creation of Pakistan. The Muslim League rejected it and Jinnah called for ‘Direct Action Day’ and insisted upon having Pakistan (Lokar range Pakistan).

This resulted in communal violence at many places, bloodshed and killings. A constituent Assembly was constituted under the Chairmanship of Babu Rajendra Prasad on 9^th December 1946. The Congress under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru formed an interim Government.

Independence and Partition: (June 1947) British Prime Minister Clement Alice entrusted to Lord Mountbatten (Viceroy) the job of transferring power. He tried to resolve the deadlock which existed between the Congress and the Muslim League. When he realised that it was impossible to patch up the differences, he made an announcement on 3^rd June 1947 regarding the partition of the country.

On the basis of Mountbatten’s declaration, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act on 18^th July 1947. This Act came into effect on 15^th August 1947. This act divided the country into India and Pakistan. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of Independent India and Lord Mountbatten who was the last Viceroy became Independent India’s first Governor-General.

Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel was instrumental in reorganizing and merging the Princely Indian States into the Indian Federation. The constitution was brought into effect on 26^th January 1950 and India became a Republic.

Role of the Indian National Congress: The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 gave a clear warning to the British with regard to the rising national feeling among Indians. There was a need for a common national organization, which included all classes of people. A. O. Hume (Allan Octavian , Hume) inspired the national leaders, to establish the Indian National Union in 1884, subsequently the Indian National Congress. The first Indian National Congress session was held at Bombay on 27th December 1885, presided over by Womesh Chandra Banerjee. 72 delegates from different parts of India attended it and four of them were from Karnataka.

Aims and objectives of the Congress:

• Promotion of friendly relations among the nationalists and other political workers from different parts of the country. 
• Development and consolidation of the feeling of national unity, irrespective of caste, religion, province etc., 
• Presenting the popular demands of the people before the British Government. 
• Organisation of public opinion in the country. 
• To politically educate the Indian masses and demand to include more Indians in the councils and civil services.

In the beginning, the British Government was friendly towards the Congress. But as its strength and popularity increased, Congress was in favour of a responsible Government in India and began to demand the same. This irritated the British Government and it began to adopt a policy of favouring anti-Congrcss elements. 

Freedom movement in India can be divided into three stages, namely:-

1. The first phase -The period of the Moderates – 1885-1905. 

2. The second phase-The period of the Extremists in 1905- 1920. 

3. The third phase-The Gandhian period or Era-1920-1947.

The first phase – The period of the Moderates in 1885-1905 : 

The early Congress (1885-1905): Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji (The grand old man of India), Pheroz Shah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjee, G K. Gokhale, BadruddinTyabji, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Anandacharlu and others were the moderates.

Policy of the Moderates: The Moderates were cordial towards the British, and they had strong faith in the British sense of justice and f airplay. They felt that India will get modernized and uplifted by the benevolent and liberal rule of the British.

Moderates followed the principles of Prayers, Petitions and Protests to pressurize the British Government. They organized public meetings, submitted memorandums to the Government to redress the grievances of the people; If the Government was stubborn to their demands, they used to protest against it. Dada bhai Naoroji established the East India Association in 1866. This Association took up the Indian issues at London and attempted to influence the British public and British legislators to enact policies and laws favoring Indians.

The British were hostile towards the Congress since its establishment and they developed a . stem attitude towards the moderates. Their policy was nicknamed as ‘Political Mendicancy’ (begging for political concessions) by the Extremists. They called the Congress as factory of sedition’ and leaders as ‘Seditious Brahmins’ and ‘Disloyal Babus’.

Moderates were true patriots and they brought political maturity to the Indians. They exposed the exploitative character of the colonial rule and policies of the British. They were able to underline that the duty of the Government was to consider the interests of the Indians. The notable results of their demands was the Indian Councils Act of 1892. The Moderates played a very important role in the freedom movement in India. They sowed the seeds of liberalism and nationalist ideas in the minds of Indians.

Second Phase – The period of the Extremists -1905-1920. The Indian National Movement entered a new phase after 1905. The Extremists wen: radical and militant in their approach in contrast to the Moderates. They believed that reform could not be secured by mere talk, and only by action. They blamed the British rule fo all the prevailing problems and were called Extremists or Radical Nationalists.

Extremists convinced the public that Self-Government was essential for the sal of the economic, political and cultural progress of the country. Extremists had grown in self-confidence. The leaders of the extremists were Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Roy.

Important events during the Extremist’s Period: 

1. Partition of Bengal in 1905: In 1905, Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal into two parts as East Bengal and West Bengal. He justified the partition on administrative convenience, as Bengal was too big a province to be administrated by a single provincial Government. The real intention of the order was to curb the growing national feeling in Bengal. The people staunchly opposed this and indulged in the anti-partition movement, boycott of foreign goods and usage of only swadeshi goods.

2. Flic Surat Split -1907: The Extremists and the Moderates differed over issues like election of the President, setting goals and passing resolutions of the Congress. Finally, both the groups agreed to Dadabhai Naoroji for Presidentship of the Congress in 1906. But the Extremists were successful in making Dadabhai Naoroji to declare ‘Swaraj (Self Government) as the goal of the Congress.

The differences once again emerged at the Surat session in 1907. The Moderates wanted Rashbihari Ghosh and the Extremists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be the President. Both the groups refused to compromise resulting in the split in the Indian National Congress. This is commonly known as the ‘Surat Split’. The British undertook many repressive measures and also introduced many Acts to suppress the Extremists. Both groups reunited in the Lucknow Congress session.

3. Revolutionary Nationalism (Terrorism): The repressive measures of the British encouraged revolutionary terrorism. The revolutionaries were radical nationalists who did not believe in passive resistance. They were ready for any violent activity in order to drive away the British from India. They organised secret societies like Abhinav Bharat and Anusilan Samiti to achieve their goal. The revolutionaries were able to create a commotion but most of them were either imprisoned, exiled, killed or hanged.

4. Muslim League in 1906: The All India Muslim League was founded by Nawab Aga Khan, Nawab Mohsim ul Mulk and others in 1906. The British tried to check the National movement by following a policy of divide and rule. The League followed a path contrary to that of Congress. They supported the partition of Bengal and also demanded a separate electorate for the Muslims. The Punjab Hindu Sabha was founded in 1909. The Hindu Maha Sabha like the All India Muslim League was also against the Indian National Congress.

5. Morley – Minto Reforms 1909: This act increased the number of elected members to the Central and Provincial Councils and also introduced separate electorates to the Muslims. The number of seats so reserved was in an higher ratio for the Muslim population when compared to the Hindu population. Only Muslims were to vote to the reserved Muslim seats.

6. Home Rule League 1916: The Home Rule Movement was started by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mrs. Annie Bcsant in 1916. The objective of the movement was to attain Self-Government within the British Empire by all constitutional means. The movement soon spread throughout India and became popular. Tilak gave the popular slogan “Swaraj (Home rule) is my birthright and I shall have it”. Mr. Edwin Montague made a declaration on 20^th August 1917. By this announcement, it was promised to give responsible Government to Indians, by degrees.

7. Montague – Chelmsford Reforms 1919; (Government of India Act of 1919) This Act introduced Bi-Cameral legislatures (Diarchy). The Central Assembly (Lower house) consisted of 144 members, 104 elected and 40 nominated members. The Council of States (Upper I louse) was to have 34 elected and 26 nominated members.

8. Rowlatt act of 919 and Jalian Walabagh Tragedy: The British Government passed the Rovvlatt Act in 1919. This Act empowered the Government to arrest and detain suspected persons without warrant and imprison them without any trial. Indians protested against the Rowlatt Act. A huge meeting was held at Jalian Walabagh on 13th April 1919. About 10,000 unarmed people had gathered there. General Dyer with his troops surrounded the meeting place and opened fire on the innocent people and around 1000 persons were killed and many more were injured.

Governor General Lord Curzon in 1905 partitioned Bengal.

Lala Lajpat Roy, Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak.

‘Poverty and Un British Rule in India’(in 1876 C.E.).

Lord Canning was the British Governor General at the time of these revolts.

The East India Company entered into a settlement with Estate or Mahal (village). The farmers within the village were collectively considered to be the owners of the land and were also collectively responsible for the payment of land revenue at 50 to 60% of the yield, (or) The village (Mahal) land belonged jointly to the village community, which is responsible for payment of land revenue to the company.

Krishnaraja Wodeyar-IV had the title ‘Rajarishi’.

Sir Mirza Ismail started the Bangalore and Mysore Radio stations.

Alur Venkata Rao was called Kannada Kulapurohita.

Chamaraja Wodeyar- X became the King of Mysore in 1881.

Hyderabad, Kashmir and Junagad refused to join the Indian Union.

The first Home Minister Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel.

The Indian soldiers broke out in open rebellion and proclaimed Bahadur Shah – II (dethroned Mughal Emperor) as the Emperor of India.

In the military unit at Meerut.

Begum Hazrath Mahal, the widow of Wajid Ali.

Course of the war (Revolt): 

1. Mangal Pandey: The revolt broke out in 34^th infantry at Barrackpur (Bengal) on 29^th March 1857. The Indian soldiers of Barrackpur refused to use the new cartridges and one of them, Mangal Pandey killed the British sergeant who forced them. This was the first shot of the revolt, but he was arrested and hanged. Mangal Pandey became the first martyr of the revolt.

2. Meerut Military: The Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to use the cartridges. They were tried and sentenced to long term imprisonments. Other soldiers broke out in open rebellion (10th May 1857). They attacked the jail, released their fellow soldiers and the British officers were killed and their houses were burnt. ‘Maro Phirangiko’ was their slogan. –

3. Delhi (Bahadur Shah-II): The soldiers marched from Meerut to Delhi on 11th May 1857 and brought it under their control. The dethroned Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah-II was proclaimed as the ‘Emperor of India’. They hoisted the flag of independence on the Red Fort. The loss of Delhi dealt a severe blow to the prestige of the British Empire. Finally, in September 1857, Delhi was recaptured by the British. Bahadur Shah – II was arrested and deported to Rangoon.

4. Revolt in Lucknow: In June 1857, Begum Hazrath Mahal declared her son Wajid Ali as the Nawab of Oudh, but this proposal was rejected by the British. So, she rebelled against them at Lucknow. The British attacked Lucknow and captured it. and she fled to Nepal.

5. Kanpur incident: On 5th june 1857, Nana Saheb revolted against the British and captured Kanpur and declared himself as Peshwa. Nana Saheb was assisted by Tantia Tope. But the British (General Havelock) were successful in recapturing Kanpur (17th June 1857). Nana Saheb fled to Nepal.

6. Revolt in Jhansi: Protesting against the policy of Doctrine of Lapse, Rani Laxmi Bai the Queen of Jhansi who was driven out of Jhansi, along with Tantia Tope revolted and captured Gwalior. When the British came to recapture Gwalior under Hugh Rose, she fought heroically and died on the battle field on 17th june 1858.

Spread of the Revolt: The news of the revolt at Delhi spread throughout northern and central India, Kanpur, Lucknow, Bihar, Allahabad, Bareilly, Jagadhishpur, Jhansi and other parts of the country. Many Rulers remained loyal to the British government, but their soldiers revolted, and people started supporting the rebels.

Sir.M. Vishweshwaraiah and Sir Mirza Ismail.

Srinivasashastri and Venkatalaxmamma were the parents of SirM.V.

Indian soldiers believed that the cartridges were smeared with the fat of cows and pigs, which were antireligious to both Hindus and Muslims.

The All India Muslim League was established by Nawab Aga Khan and Nawab Mohsin ul Mulkin 1906.

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) Bangalore, Sugar Factory at Mandya, Match Factory at Shivamogga, Chemical and Fertilisers Factory at Belagola.

Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah is called as the maker of modern Mysore.

Sir. M. Vishweshwaraiah in 1915 at Bangalore.

Sir M.V. wrote A vision of prosperous Mysore, Reconstructing India, Rapid development of Industries, Planned Economy for India. Memories of my working life etc.,

Sir.M. Vishweshwaraiah in 1913 C.E. founded the Bank of Mysore.

Introduction: Sir M. Vishweshwaraiah was the most outstanding Dewan of Mysore. He entered the services of Mysore as Chief Engineer. He was a great Engineer, a capable administrator, eminent economist, liberal-minded statesmen and patriot. He is rightly called as‘The Architect of Modem Mysore”.

Early life and career of M.V.: Sir M.V. was bom on 15^th September 1861 at Muddenahalli (Chikkaballapur District). His parents were Srinivas Shastri and Venkatalaxmamma who were orthodox Hindus. After completing his primary education at Chikkaballapura, he went to Bangalore for further studies.

He obtained his B. A. degree from Central College, Bangalore in 1881. He did his B.E. degree (Pune) from Madras University in 1884. lie served in the Bombay Government from 1884 to 1909. He was appointed as the Chief Engineer of Mysore State in 1909. Krishnaraja Wodeyar – IV appointed him as the Dewan of Mysore in 1912. The main objective of Sir M. V. was the eradication of poverty and to put India in line with the developed nations.

Administrative reforms: Sir M.V. was a liberal statesman and believed in democracy. He took steps to strengthen the local selfgoverning bodies. The number of the members of the legislative council was increased from 18 to 24 and given the power to discuss the budget of the state. Sri M.V. passed the local selfgoverning bodies Act. This act made provisions for the majority of the members of the district and taluk boards being elected. Village reform committees were established for the progress of villages. The development of Malnad region was given priority and a plan was drawn up.

Industrial Development: ‘Industrialize or Perish’ was the slogan of Sir M.V. His aim was to make Mysore an industrially advanced state in India. He started several industries in the state. The important industries are Sandal oil factory at Mysore, Soap factory, Central Industrial workshop and Metal factory at Bangalore, Silk research center at Channapattana. Small scale and Cottage industries also developed.

Cottage industries such as weaving, pottery, oil processing, mat making, wood works, leather goods, etc., flourished. The Mysore Chamber of Commerce and Industry was established in 1913 at Bangalore. The Mysore Bank was founded in 1913 at Bangalore for the promotion of Industries and Commerce.

Educational reforms: Sir M.V. believed that “Progress in every country depends mainly on the education of its people”. His main objective was the eradication of illiteracy from India. So, he introduced compulsory primary education. Scholarships and special grants were made available to encourage education among the economically and socially backward classes. Female and technical education were also encouraged.

The major Educational Institutions started by Sir M.V. were the Government Engineering College at Bangalore, School of Agriculture at Hebbal and Chamarajendra Technological Institution at Mysore. His greatest achievements were the establishment of Mysore Univesity in 1916 at Mysore and the Kannada Sahitya Parishat in 1915 at Bangalore to promote the growth of Kannada language and Literature.

Irrigational scheme: He understood the needs of the farmers. He introduced the block system and the automatic gates for better utilisation of the available water. K.R.S. dam was built across Cauvery at (1911 to 1931)Kannambadi and as a result, 150,00 acres of barren lands in the Mandya and Malavalli areas came under cultivation. lie offered many proposals for the eradication of poverty. Canals, tanks and reservoirs were built. Proper sewage systems were introduced.

Railway reforms: Sir M.V. introduced the ‘Railway committee’ in the State. In 1913, the Mysore-Arasikere and Bowringpete – Kolar railway lines were laid. In 1918, Bangalore – Mysore, Mysore Nanjangudu and Bimr-Shimoga railway lines being managed by the Madras and Southern Marata Company were brought under the State control.

Relief works: During Sir. M. Vishweshwaraiah’s Dewanship the first world war (1914-18) broke out. This led to severe shortage of foodstuff. He look up relief works by opening fair price shops, stopping export of food grains and fixing the selling prices.

Sri M.V. was conferred with the title ‘Sir’ and Knighthood by the British Government in 1915. The government of India conferred the ‘Bharat Ratna’ in 1955.

Introduction: The revolt of 1857 set the tone for India’s Independence struggles. The period between 1757-1857 was marked by the plunder of Indian wealth, by East India Company. Political, social and cultural changes led to the rebellion against British rule. This was the first united revolt and it was the outburst of accumulated discontent of Indians against the policies of East India company.

The spark of patriotism was kindled in a military unit at Meerut which soon burst into a terrific flame and spread to other parts of the country and shook the British rule. British called this as ‘Sepoy Mutiny’, but the nationalists called it as the first war of Indian Independence.

Causes for the revolt: 

1. Political causes: The conquests and annexations of the British not only affected the ruling class, but also gave a rude shock to the sentiments of the people. The British interfered in the internal affairs of the Indian states and followed the policy of divide and rule. Implementation of the subsidiary Alliance and the Doctrine of Lapse, using the pretext of misrule to annex the Kingdoms and Princely states were the reasons for the Indian Kings, Princes, Soldiers, Zamindars to be disappointed with the actions of the British East India Company.

2. Administrative causes: The British introduced a new system of administration which replaced the traditional system. The introduction of ‘Rule of Law’ and ‘Equality before law’ developed suspicion in the minds of the orthodox (traditional) Hindus and Muslims. Indians were not given higher posts in the administration and were paid much less than the British officers with no promotions. This was contrary to the British policy of equality before law.

3. Economic causes: Economic exploitation was an important cause for the revolt. The huge drain of wealth made India economically poor. The British trade policy had established a monopoly on trade. They converted India into a supplier of raw materials and a market for their finished goods. Indian native handicrafts suffered a lot. Indian goods could not be sold in England due to heavy taxes imposed on their export. The Land tax was also raised, due to which many of them were compelled to mortage their lands to moneylenders and consequently found themselves in deep debts.

Dr. Eshwari Prasad remarks “India became a milk cow for England, while her own children died of starvation”.

4. Social causes: Many social and religious reforms caused (Social Reforms Act) serious discontent among Hindu and Muslim orthodox sections. The British thought that they belonged to a superior race and humiliated Indians. The abolition of Sati, permission for widow remarriages, curb on child marriages, purdah, animal sacrifices etc., caused a lot of unrest among the orthodox people.

The introduction of telegraph and railways were seen as efforts to chain the country and were clear signs of westernization. The British treated Indians as unworthy of trust, incapable of honesty and fit to be employed only where they could not do without them. They were rude and arrogant towards Indians and were very racial in their nature and spirit.

5. Religious causes: The British activities affected the sentiments of Hindus and Muslims. The Christian missionaries were seen everywhere in the schools, hospitals, prisons and at the market places. They tried to convert Indians to Christianity by various devious methods. The spread of English education and culture through missionaries and convents created suspicion among Indians about their religions.

Hindu soldiers were forced to cross the sea against their belief. Forced intermarriages became a means to convert the natives to Christianity. Cartridges greased with Cows/Pigs fat affected the religious sentiments of Hindus and Muslims alike. The Europeans treated Indians as untouchables.

6. Military causes: Indian soldiers were paid very low salaries compared to the British soldiers of the same grade, and were not promoted to any rank higher than that of a subedar. According to the Enlistment Act of 1856 of Lord Canning, it required the sepoys to serve overseas also.

Hindus believed that crossing the sea was a sin (Kalapani). The soldiers were often treated with contempt by their British officers. There were rumours among the sepoys that the British were trying to break their caste and convert them to Christianity. There were more than 75000 soldiers in the British army from Oudh. When Oudh was annexed by the British Empire citing maladministration, these soldiers were angry.

7. Immediate causes: The British introduced new Enfield rifles. The top of the cartridges had to be removed by biting it off. A rumour spread that the cartridges were smeared with the fat of cows and pigs. The Indian sepoys felt that the British were trying to spoil their religion. They refused to use these rifles and the British forced and threatened the soldiers to use them. This was the spark, which later spread all over the country.

Results of the revolt: 

The first war of Indian Independence marks a very important turning point in the history of India and its far reaching results. They are:

1. End of the Company rule : The East India Company rule was abolished and the British Crown took over the administration of India. Viceroy was the representative of the Crown in India and Lord Canning was the first Viceroy.

2. The Queen’s proclamation (or) Magna carta of India in 1858 : Queen Victoria issued her famous proclamation known as the Magna carta of the Indian people (Lord Canning announced it on 1st November 1858). Indians were promised that their rights, selfrespect, honour and religious traditions would be safeguarded and Government jobs would be offered to all without any favouritism. The British Government will not annex any more Indian states.

3. Reorganization of the Army : The Indian Army was reorganized. Number of the British soldiers in the army was increased, growth of sentiment of national unity among the sepoys was checked, but communal loyalties were encouraged.

4. Unity among Indians: The revolt brought unity among Hindus and Muslims, as they came together to fight the British.

5. Source of Inspiration: The revolt gave British a taste of Indian patriotism. It served as a source of inspiration in India’s struggle for freedom. The heroes of the revolt soon became household names in the country. The Mughal rule also came to an end.

Chandrashekar Azad founded the H.R.A.

Gandhiji organized the peasant movement in Champaran in 1917.

During 1767 to 1769 C.E.

Mir Jafar was the commander of the Bengal army.

1. There was no common aim among the rebels. Lack of unity, lack of leadership, lack of arms, lack of proper organization, mutual hatred and suspicion were the reasons for the failure of the revolt. 

2. The British fully utilised the scientific developments like modem weapons, telegraphs, railways, postal etc., to collect information quicker than the Indian soldiers and were ready for proper action. 

3. The Indian Kings were supporting the British and the general public did not fully get involved and support the rebels.

The British introduced three types of land revenue systems in India. They were 1) The Permanent land revenue settlement (PLRS) or Zamindari system, 2) Ryotwari or Munroe system 3) Mahalwari system.

On 31st May 1893 at Chicago in America.

At the Shivapura Congress Session on 11^th April 1938.

Vidurashwatha Tragedy (25th April 1938), when the police fired and killed 32 people in a procession.

Dr. N. S. Hardekar-In 1924-AtITubIi.

Isur (ShimogaDist) in 1942.

Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920.

Lord Mountbatten.

Sir. M. Vishweshwaraiah.

Lord At lee was the Prime Minister of England in 1947. His declaration called for granting Independence to India before June 1948. It was made on 20th February 1947.

K. C. Reddy organized the Mysore Chalo, on 1st September 1947.

Sir. M. Vishweshwaraiah. in 1955.

Gandhiji gave the call ‘Do or Die’ in 1942.