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(i) The total digits leaving 1st digit from the left is 15

∴ the standard form is 6.02 × 10¹⁵

(ii) Total digits after decimal is 12

∴ the standard form is 9.42 × 10^-12

(iii) Total digits after decimal is 10

∴ the standard form is 8.5 × 10^-10

(iv) The total digits leaving 1st digit from the left is 3

3759 × 10^-4 = 3.759 × 10³ × 10^-4

 = 3.759 × 10^3+(-4) 

= 3.759 × 10^-1

(v) The standard form is 4 × 10^-5

(i) 4.83 × 10000000 = 4830000000

   = 48300000.00

∴ Hence ,the usual form is 48300000

(ii) Hence, the usual form is 0.00000302

(iii)  4.5 × 10000 = 450000

  = 45000.0

∴ the usual form is 45000

(iv) Hence, the usual form is 0.00000003

(v) 1.0001 × 1000000000 = 10001000000000

 = 1000100000.0000

∴ the usual form is 1000100000

Following efforts/means are required to achieve and maintain legitimacy by a political system. 

(1) Adjustment with New Circumstances : 

When a political system is successful enough to adjust itself according to changes in political, social, economic and cultural fields then it can maintain its legitimacy. If a political system does not make adjustments with new changes then some danger stands before the legitimacy of the system. 

For example, there was autocracy in ancient time. Eater on, democratic thoughts came into being. Those political systems which modified themselves according to democratic values, their legitimacy continued and those which could not do so, revolutions occurred there. Many countries of Africa and Asia are examples of such revolutions. Communist system could not change itself and therefore it lost its legitimacy at global level.

(2) Regard for Traditions : 

In every country and society, there are some popular traditions which become a compulsory part of human life there. The political system should respect these traditions if it wants to maintain its legitimacy in that society. 

The political system should modify itself according to these traditions.

(3) Entrance of New Groups in Politics : 

The pre-existing political system or group should welcome the newly arising political groups. By this the legitimacy of. old system increases. If the already existing political group opposes the emergence of new political units then the legitimacy of the old group is negatively affected.

(4) Over-expectations from Political Systems : 

Over-expectations of public from political system put ill effect on the legitimacy of the system. When a political system remains incapable of satisfying the public expectations then its legitimacy falls in danger. Therefore, a political system should promise the least and do the most to maintain its legitimacy.

(5) Personal Virtues : 

Leadership qualities play an important role in maintaining the legitimacy of the political party of the leader. If the leader has dynamic qualities then the public keeps faith in him/her and legitimacy continues. 

(6) Decision based on Consent :

To maintain legitimacy it is necessary that all the people related to a political system should participate directly or indirectly in decision processes. Adult suffrage and election on time are basic means of sharing all people in decision process.

(7) Separation of Political Institutes and Armed Services :

To maintain democratic structure and legitimacy it is necessary to keep political units and military units separate. Besides, the political units should dominate military. Only then legitimacy can be maintained.

Theories of Structure of Power : 

Traditionally, power is considered in form of such capacity on the basis of which one side or group of people establish control over other side. There are many such groups in society which keep control over others with the help of their power. There are following four theories regarding the structure of power.

(I) Theory of Class Dominance : 

This theory is the contribution of Marxism. According to this theory, two groups are found on the basis of economic condition in the society and these are contradictory to each other. 

1. Economically powerful class 

2. Economically weak class. 

Since the beginning of human civilization, a continuous struggle is going on between these two classes. According to this theory each and every task of society is connected with economic gain. Even parents look after their children with economic point of view and the children too take care of parents with the same mentality.

(II) Special Class Theory : 

According to this theory the society is divided into two sections on the basis of power, 

(i) Powerful class, 

(ii) General class. 

The powerful class applies its power on general class. Skill, organisation power, intelligence, managing power, financial power and leading power are also some other forms of power on the basis of which our society is divided. 

On the basis of these abilites, a small class comes out from the society, which applies its power on general class. Political leaders, administrators, officers, industrialists, lawyers, professors, doctors etc. are example of this special class.

(III) Feminist Theory : 

This theory considers that the division of power in society is based on gender. Almost all the power of society is in the hands of men. They apply this power on women. On the basis of this theory, women’s freedom movement began in Europe. But in India, the situation is opposite. In our country, women are regarded as goddess and they are cared and respected more than men. Indian tradition support women’s pride rather than their freedom.

(IV) Pluralistic Theory : 

This theory is different from all the three theories given above. Pluralistic theory considers that the power of society is not present in a particular or special class but it is distributed in many groups. In liberal democratic system a kind of bargaining goes on for maintenance of peace due to which exploitation does not occur due to power. The Indian concept of power is based on the sense of responsibility. Indian concept suggests to use power for the sake of public welfare. It tries that powerless should become powerful and join with the main stream of society.

Difference between Power and Force : 

Power and force are two different concepts of political science. There are following differences between these two :

1. Power is always invisible and abstract while force is visible and has some form. 

2. Power is psychological capacity while force is a physical capacity. 

3. Force is more suppressive in comparison to power. Force applies restrictions on opponents. 

4. Power is more wide concept in comparison to force. According to some scholars, power includes both, the force and effect but power has more effect than force. Power decides its objective and can use force to achieve that objective. In this way the force is a kind of tool for power.

Difference between Power and Impression : 

Power and impression are closely interrelated. Impression generates power and power generates impression. Power cannot remain without effect. In spite of these closeness, power and effect have some following differences :

1. Power has compulsion (tendency to insist) while effect has no compulsion. Power tries to insist the people to obey while effect does not do so because it is an optional concept. 

2. Power is more physical than impression and impression is a moral element. 

3. The uses and effects of power can be seen but impression is a micro-concept and its result can be felt in mind only. 

4. The scope of power or the area under the application of power is limited while that of impression is very wide or unlimited because it spreads in the form of thoughts. 

5. The person applying power needs no consent of those people over which it is applied while the impressive person utilizes the impression with the consent of people. In this way impression is democratic while power is not. 

6. Power generates resistance and jealousy in the hearts of people who are under its application while impression.

Legitimacy : 

The English word ‘Legitimacy’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Legitimus’ which means ‘lawful’. But in political science, the word legitimacy stands for a concept which includes many things more than lawful. It refers such values and beliefs of state which make it logical.

Different scholars have defined legitimacy as following : 

According to Karl J. Fredrick :

“Legitimacy is that sign of laws and rulers which promotes their authority.”

According to S.M. Lipset : 

“Legitimacy refers that ability and capacity of a system which orginate or maintain a belief in the public that the present political system is the best for them.”

According to the definitions given above, legitimacy refers the consent of public which is given to political system. If such consent of people is not available to a political system then it cannot remain for long.

1. Political Power 

2. Economic Power

These are : 

1. Voting, and

 2. Public opinion

Political power refers to the allotment of important resources of society like post, prestige, tax, reward and punishment in different groups of society. Generally, political power is used by different parts of government like legislative, executive and judiciary, which we call the formal organs of power. Apart from these, various pressure groups, political parties and influential people also have the potential to influence public policies. So they are the informal organs of power.

Power is the main centre of political science. Therefore, under political science, the concept of power has a great deal of importance. Among western thinkers, Mackiyavalli is regarded as the very first thinker who expressed his views on power. After this, Thomas Hobbs, in his book ‘Leviathan’, gave importance to power in the field of state and politics. The main propogator of modern times Charles Merriam analysed many aspects of power. Then the concept of power was made clear by Catlin, Loswell, Caplan, etc. Catlin, defining power a science in the field of political science, termed politics such a place of competition wherein the people struggle to gain powers.

Economic power means ownership on the means of production and wealth. Economic power affects the political power in many ways. It is believed that those who are financially powerful are also politically powerful, but there is a difference between Liberalism and Marxism about the kind of relationship between economic and political power. According to liberalism, the society that determines political power has many elements which have interdependence and do not define the same political power without the sole economic power. On the other hand, Marxism believes that all kinds of power rest on the economic power and economic power determines the political power in society.

The following are similarities and dissimilarities in power and influence :

Similarities :

1. Both provide strongness to each other, that is, both are mutually important.

2. Power and influence are effective only after their relevance.

3. Influence generates power and power increases influence.

Dissimilarities : 

1. Power is oppressive. There is strong physical force on its back, whereas influence is psychological. 

2. Use of power can be against the wish of a person, whereas influence is relative and its success depends upon the consent of the effected person. 

3. Power is undemocratic, whereas influence is absolutely democratic factor. 

4. To sustain power influence is required, whereas the influence for its sustainability needs no power.

Power becomes more effective when it joins with legitimacy and becomes authority.

Following are the two factors that affect legitimacy : 

1. Entrance of new groups in politics. 

2. Limitless expectations from political systems.

Voting, public opinion, means of communication, nationalism etc. are the main means to get legitimacy.

Meaning of Authority :

In modern politics, the concept of authority has special importance. Authority is such a virtue of an individual, organisation, rule or order due to which it is obeyed or voluntarily followed. In fact, validity joins power then the combination of these two things is called Authority. The word ‘Authority’ has been derived from Latin word ‘Auctoritas’ which means “to promote”. 

Different scholars have defined the authority as following :

According to Biersted : “Authority is an institutionalized right to exercise power.” 

According to Henri Fayoi : “Authority is the right to give orders and the power to obey them.” 

According to Peterson : “Authority is the right to give order and to order to obey them.”

Different Forms of Authority :

• Traditional Authority.: This authority is based on tradition.

For example, authority of senior most person of a house.

• Charismatic Authority : This authority is based on the personality, qualities of a person. It is based on emotions.

For example, authority of Indira Gandhi, Mahatma Gandhi, Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi, etc. 

• Legal and Rational Authority : The base of this authority is post. The person who achieves a post, and who is in power by law, uses the authority. For example, authority of Prime-Minister or a Collector.

Why do we follow the Authority :

We follow authority due to the following reasons :

• Belief : The most important element of governance is the trust of the subordinates for the rulers. The deeper the faith is, the command of the rulers will be easier, and for this, it will not require the use of power.
• Uniformity : The uniformity of thoughts and ideals is an important basis of authority. 
• Public welfare : Public welfare is also an important base of authority. We do not follow most of the laws of the state under the influence of penal powers but we follow them because they promote the interest of the people, such as to follow traffic rules etc.
• Pressure : Many times pressure and power have to be exercised for the sake of authority. There are some people in every system who understand the language of oppression and pressure.

Concept of Power : Power is the centre point of politics. Hence, in political science, the concept of power has special importance.

In ancient time, army or power of soldiers had special importance but at present political power is paramount. Ancient Indian political scholars explained the different aspects of power. Among them Manu and Kautilya are main who considered the power of punishment an essential element of rule. Among Europeans, Greek philosopher Plato and Aristode accepted the importance of power in their books.

• Mackiyavallie, Hobbes, Catlin, Loswell, Mac-Iver, Organski, etc., are some of the important European political scholars who open heartly accept the importance of power. Mackiyavallie is considered the first thinker of powerism. Charles Marium has explained the different aspects of power in the modern political science.
• Catlin considered political science as science of power. He wrote, “Politics is such a field of competition in which a struggle goes on continuously among people to get power.”
• Loswell considered power as an essential component of politics. He told that activity of power in society is the main object of politics. 
• Mac-Iver defined power in his famous book, “The wave of Government” as “Power is such an ability in any form by which one can make others to do work or compel them to obey his/her order.” 
• Organsky said, “Power is the ability to influence others’ behaviour according to our aim”. According to Rober Biersted, “Power is the ability to employ force.” 
•  Edward Schils said, “Power is the ability to influence others to filful own purposes.” 
• Karl J. Fredrick said, “Power is a kind of human relation.”

It is clear from above definitions that power is an important concept of politics. In fact those who have power can make others behaviours, works and thoughts in favour of themselves. Modern scholars say that power is an ability to do some work. It means when someone does some work for ownself or for others then it is said that he is using some power.

Inter-relation of Power, Authority and Legitimacy :

Power, authority and legitimacy are important concepts of political science. These are inter-connected. When legitimacy adds to power, then it is called authority. Factually legitimate power is authority. 

This interrelationship can be understood with the help of the following points : 

(i) Role in formation of State-Governance : 

The factor/element of power provides a base to the governance of a state. Authority gives legal base to it and legitimacy provides moral base. These have separate roles to play, but their joining gives perfection to the governance of a state. 

(ii) Role in Management of State-Governance : 

In the management of a state, authority is real subject, i.e., operator. It provides legitimate personality to the governance.

Power and legitimacy are respectively means and objectives. In the form of valid power, the authority uses power as a tool to get certain or decided by legitimacy. Hence, in a government, the legitimacy plays the role of an objective. 

(iii) In view of Human Nature :

Power, authority and legitimacy are closely related with different human tendencies. Human has natural attraction towards power. This tendency gives rise to the struggle among individuals and institutes. This power struggle is controlled and regulated by social nature of human. The developed form of this social tendency is authority. This authority makes the power a tool to systematise the society and keeps valid control over the society. But there is an another human tendency which is not satisified by social system only. It wants to see the system in sensible and justful state. This tendency comes out in the form of legitimacy. In this way power and legitimacy are not related directly. These are interrelated by authority. Legitimacy makes the power and authority justful. When authority and legitimacy are very close then the authority uses less power. But, when authority and legitimacy lack combination with each other then authority uses more power. In absence of legitimacy, both power and authority are immoral. 

Legitimacy is link between power and authority. Any ruler can control the outer form of an individual or society with power but it cannot rule over the heart of public in absence of legitimacy. Hence, it is clear that power, authority and legitimacy are interrelated. Without power, we cannot establish peace, discipline, justice and happiness but the role of power is more effective when it works in combination with legitimacy.

(b)  Loswell

(c) Henri Fayol

(d) Military authority

According to Max Weber, there are three forms of authority. 

1. Traditional Authority, 

2. Charismatic Authority, 

3. Legal or Rational Authority.

The principle of class dominance which is the result of Marxism has a basic belief that on an economic basis, the society is divided into two opposing classes- economically powerful class and financially poor class. There is constant conflict between these two opposing classes in a society. According to this principle, “History has been a history of class struggle till now”. According to Marxism, every work of an individual is done with economic selfishness whether it is the caring of the child by mother or the service to parents by the son.

Forms of Authority : According to famous political scholar Max Weber, authority has following three forms :

• Traditional Authority : It is based on tradition or history. The kings rule nations or states generation wise on the basis of this authority.
• Charismatic Authority : This authority is based on the personality, qualities and miracles of a person. Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru, Atal Behari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi are the examples of it.
• Legal or Rational Authority : This authority is based on the post of a person which is given on the basis of the person’s ability.

Feminist theory holds that the basis of division of power in the society is genderistic. All the strength of the society is with the men and they use their power over women. Therefore, on this basis, women started movements in Europe who wanted to end male domination. But Indian tradition against women is different from the west. There was a long struggle to get the status of franchise and equal status for women while in Indian philosophy and ideal society women were getting proper positions. It is said there where women are worshipped, there is a house of God. In fact with its independence, in India, women are given right to vote and contest. So the Indian concept does not demand women’s freedom but support their independence.

The word “legitimacy’ has been originated from the Latin word ‘Legitimus’ which means lawful or legitimate. The concept of legitimacy is very old in political science. Plato accepted the legitimacy of political system on the basis of justice, and Aristotle accepted the legitimacy of political system on the basis of law. Indirect description of Indian philosophy is also found in ancient time. In the Manusmriti and Kautilya’s Arthashastra, all rights have been provided to the king or master to discharge certain duties.

Public observance and welfare of all have been identified as his original duty. In the medieval period, the principle of the divine theory of origin of state was considered to be the basis of the state legitimacy. Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau considered the basis of the legitimacy of the people’s agreement in place of the divine origin. In the modem democratic governance, public participation is considered to be the proof of the legality of the state. Voting, public opinion, means of communication, nationalism etc. are the means through which legitimacy is achieved.

Indian concept of power is based on responsibility. According to it, one who employs his/her capabilities in the welfare of public is considered powerful.

Faith, uniformity, public interest and pressure are main bases due to which an authority is obeyed.

The meaning of the Latin word ‘Legitimus’ is Lawful.

Catlin consider political science as the science of power.

Leviathan is the name of the book of Thomas Hobbes.

Public participation is the basic evidence of legitimacy in political system.

According to Mac-Iver, “Power is the capacity in any relation by which a task is performed or an order is obeyed by others.”

1. Power is suppressive. 

2. Power can be used against the will of any person or institute.

Charles Merriam

Catlin said, “Political science is the science of power.”

There are three forms of power. 

1. Political power 

2. Economic power 

3. Ideological power

Mackiyavalli

In democracy.

Ideology Power : 

When large number of people having faith in a particular ideology like socialism, communism, liberalism, integral humanism etc. unite together then their power is called ideological power. It affects the ways of people’s thinking and understanding. This ideology justifies the governance system in view of the people and so it gives legitimacy. Various types of social, economic, political systems or streams are prevalent in different countries based on the majority of people’s ideology in those countries.

Political power means allotment of important, valuable resources of society like post, prestige, tax, reward, punishment, etc. among different groups of society.

(c) Legitimacy

Manu, Kautilya, Shukra

There are four theories : 

1. Theory of class dominance 

2. Special class theory 

3. Feminist theory

4. Pluralistic theory

Public Welfare Authority : When political power is converted into authority supported by the ideology of public welfare then it is called public welfare authority. Public welfare is an important base of authority. We do not follow most of the laws of state due to fear of punishment but we follow them because we see our own benefit in obeying them and these are formed for our welfare. Paying tax, obeying traffic rules and other rules is in favour of our own welfare and we follow them happily. All this is the matter of public welfare authority.

(a) Mac Iver

(a) Thomas Hobbes

(a) Traditional authority

According to Henry Fayol, “Authority is the right to give order and power to enact obedience.”

According to pluralistic theory, the complete power of society is not in the hands of one class but it is distributed among many groups.