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Bloody Sundayis the name given to the events ofSunday, 22 January, 1905 in St Petersburg, Russia, where unarmed demonstrators led by Father Georgy Gapon were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marched towards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia

no mam ya ni h iska

there is no prime minister in America there is only president who is Donald Trumph.

Ok

42 state in America bro

Nationalism is a political, social, and economic ideology and movement characterized by the promotion of the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty over its homeland.

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Donald Trump is present president of America.

Donald Trump is pm of America

Ans :- Monsoon wind is known for its uncertainties because(i) The movement of low-pressure trough controls the spatial distribution of rainfall.(ii) The alteration of wet and dry spells varies in intensity, frequency and duration.(iii) It sometime causes heavy floods in one part, it may be responsible for drought in other.(iv) It is often irregular in its arrival and retreat.

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=>Democratic government is an accountable government I. e., it is responsible for its action, decisions, and policies including and administration.

=>The government is answerable to the Parliament or we can say to the people.

=> If government is not working according to the needs and expectation of the citizens the Parliament can move a 'no confidence' motion against the government.

The concept of Directive Principles of State Policy has been implemented from the Irish Public. They have been included in our Constitution for two key reasons as given below:

*To ensure that economic justice is offered to everybody

*To avoid accumulation of wealth by just a few people alone

The Directive Principles of State Policy has been classified into four categories:

Social and economic principles

*International security and peace related policies and principles

*Gandhian principles

*Miscellaneous

6.

Mostplasticsare made from oil and mostplasticsdo not biodegrade, which makes it difficult todisposeof. There are no natural processes in place that can absorb non biodegradableplasticback into the biological cycle. It cannot be composted or left to rot where it is dropped or dumped like organic rubbish.

Mostplasticsare made from oil and mostplasticsdo not biodegrade, which makes it difficult todispose of. There are no natural processes in place that can absorb non biodegradableplasticback into the biological cycle. It cannot be composted or left to rot where it is dropped or dumped like organic rubbish.3

Mostplasticsare made from oil and mostplasticsdo not biodegrade, which makes it difficult todisposeof. There are no natural processes in place that can absorb non biodegradableplasticback into the biological cycle. It cannot be composted or left to rot where it is dropped or dumped like organic rubbish.

Today’s post aim to give a broad overview on the 4 main method of plastic disposal. They are: Landfilling, Incineration, Recycling and Biodegradation.

Non biodegradable wastes are harmful because they do not decompose with time so it will affect the environment

Soil formation depends on the parent rock material, the climate and topography of the area, the organisms present in the soil and the time over which the soil has been developing. Over long periods of time, thousands and millions of years, the rocks near the surface of the earth are broken down by various physical, chemical and some biological processes. The end product of this breaking down is the fine particles of soil.Physical Process:

The Sun:The sun heats up rocks during the day so that they expand. At night, the rocks cool down and contract. This unequal expansion and contraction break up rocks into smaller pieces.

Water:Water can get into the cracks formed in the rock due to uneven heating by the sun. If the water freezes, it will widen the rocks. Also fast flowing water carries big and small particles of roc downstream, causing breakdown of rock in to smaller particles.

Wind:Strong winds erode rocks down.

Chemical Process:

Lichens grow on surface of rocks release chemical substances which cause the rock surface to powder down and form thin layer of soil.

Biological Process:

Living organisms: Some small plants grown in the cracks of rocks and the roots of big trees break the rocks.

Types of soil found in India -

Alluvial soil -Alluvial soil is most widespread soil. It is fond in the plain of India and in the flood plains and deltas of the major rivers

Black soil - Black soil is formed due to weathering of volcanic rocks. Therefore, it is also called black lava soil.

Red soil - Old ignious rocks weather to form red soil. The red soil is found in Peninsular India.

Mountain soil -Mountain soil is mainly found on the hill slopes covered with forest. This soil is formed due to the deposition oforganic matter.

Desert soil -Desert soil is found in hot semi-arid regions.

Laterite soil -Laterite soil is formed when heavy rain wash away the fertile upper part of the soil. Therefore, this soil is less fertile.

Yes this the correct Answer

Soil is the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust, capable of supporting life. You know that the earliest civilizations almost always arose near river banks. This happened because the river provided a continuous supply of water and the soil along the river banks was very fertile. Thus, human settlements in different parts of the world followed the distribution pattern of fertile soil and water on the Earth.Soil provides water and minerals to plants for their growth. Without soil, there would be no vegetation and hence no animal life. Where do we look for soil? You would be tempted to say that soil covers the entire land surface of earth. However, this is not true. Large parts of Arctic and Antarctic regions are covered with ice and snow. Solid rocks present in mountains contain no soil. Ice, snow and rocks together constitute about one-fifth of the total land area.

Chances are that you haven't thought a lot about the soil under your feet, but you may be surprised at the complexity of soil. Soil varies in its composition and the structure of its particles, and these factors are closely examined by farmers, who need appropriate soil for planting crops, as well as engineers who may need to understand how soil is going to hold up under different demands. Soil is also vitally important to the sustainability of an ecosystem because it serves as the natural medium for the growth of vegetation. In this lesson, you will discover just what soil is and which factors are looked at when determining the structure and the types of soil.

So, what exactly is soil?Soilcan be defined as the organic and inorganic materials on the surface of the earth that provide the medium for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over time and is composed of many different materials. Inorganic materials, or those materials that are not living, include weathered rocks and minerals.Weatheringis the mechanical or chemical process by which rocks are broken down into smaller pieces. As rocks are broken down, they mix with organic materials, which are those materials that originate from living organisms. For example, plants and animals die and decompose, releasing nutrients back into the soil.

Soilis loose material that lies on top of the land. It is a mixture of many different things includingrock,minerals, water and air. Soil also has living things and dead things in it. We call the living and dead things "organic matter". Soil is important for life on Earth.

Because soil holds water andnutrients, it is anidealplace for plants to grow.[1]Soil holds the roots, and lets plants stand above the ground to collect the light they need to live. This helps plants grow.Fungiandbacteriaalso live in the soil. They eat the dead plants and animals. The broken down material becomes food for plants (nutrients).[2]

Many animals dig into the soil and make the soil their home. The large animals use soil to make dens for sleeping and giving birth. The small animals live most of their life in the soil.Earthwormsare famous for improving soil. This is because the holes they make let air into the soil. The holes also let water go through.

The soil also has manymicroorganismsliving in it. Many of them eat the organic material in the soil. They useoxygenand releasecarbon dioxide. They also releasemineralnutrients into the soil.[3]

Soil is different in different places on Earth. This is because theclimateand rocks in the Earth are different in different places on Earth. Soils are usually thicker in places whereice sheetscovered the ground during thePleistoceneice ages. This is because the ice sheets ground the rock into powder as they slowly moved over the surface

soil is loose material that lies on top

Soilis loose material that lies on top of the land. It is a mixture of many different things including rock, minerals, water and air.Soilalso has living things and dead things in it. We call the living and dead things "organic matter".

Jain Literature

Jain literature is classified into two major categories:

Agam Literature (Agam Sutras)

Agam literature consists of many texts, which are the sacred books of the Jain religion. They are written in the Ardha-magadhi Prakrit language.

Non-agam Literature

Non-agam literature consists of commentary and explanation of Agam literature, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars. They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

Lord Mahavir's preaching was orally compiled by his disciples into many Sutras (texts). Collectively these texts are called Jain canonical or Agam literature. Traditionally these sutras were orally pass on from teachers (acharyas or gurus) to the disciples for several centuries. Also, during the course of time many learned acharyas (elder monks) compiled commentaries on the various subjects of the Agam literature. In olden times, the books were hand-written and rare. Also the religious books and scriptures were considered possessions and attachments for ascetics. Therefore Agam sutras were rarely documented and not widely distributed for or by ascetics.

During the course of time, it became extremely difficult to keep memorizing the entire Jain literature (Agam sutras and Commentary literature) compiled by the many scholars of the past and present. Also there occurred a twelve years of famine around 350 BC. It was extremely difficult for the Jain ascetics to survive during this time. Under such circumstances they could not preserve the entire canonical literature. In fact, a significant number of Agam sutras were already forgotten and lost after the famine.

Later, when the Jain congregation relaxed the vow of non-possession with regards to religious scriptures for ascetics, they had already forgotten much of the oldest canonical literature such as fourteen Purva Agams and the rest were polluted with modifications and errors.

The Digambar Jain sect maintains that after the famine, the entire Jain canonical literature (Agam Sutras) became extinct. However the Swetambar sect believes that only fourteen Purvas were forgotten but the significant portion of the remaining Agam Sutras were preserved by them and hence they decided to document the Agam Sutras (canonical literature) as remembered by them at various time.

Jain history indicates that during the course of time, Swetambar ascetics held three conferences; at Patli-putra 320 B.C., at Mathura and Valabhi 380 A.D., and at Valabhi 520 A.D. for the preservation of the Jain canonical and other literature. Most of the documention occured during 2nd and 3rd conferences.

Around 1500 A.D., the Swetambar sect also divided into three subsects known as Swetambar Murtipujak, Sthanakvasi, and Terapanthi. Differences also exist among all three Swetambar Jain sects in their acceptance of the validity of the documented Jain scriptures (Agam Sutras) and literature.

Jain Literature

Jain literature is classified into two major categories:

Agam Literature (Agam Sutras)

Agam literature consists of many texts, which are the sacred books of the Jain religion. They are written in the Ardha-magadhi Prakrit language.

Non-agam Literature

Non-agam literature consists of commentary and explanation of Agam literature, and independent works, compiled by ascetics and scholars. They are written in many languages such as Prakrit, Sanskrit, Apabhramsa, Old Marathi, Rajasthani, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannad, Tamil, German, and English.

Agam Literature:

Lord Mahavir's preaching was methodically compiled by his immediate disciples known as Gandharas, and elder monks known as Srut-kevalis into many texts known as Sutras. These Sutras are collectively known as Agams or Agam Sutras, the sacred books of the Jain religion. Hence, the Jain religion does not have one sacred book like the Bible or Koran, but it has many books compiled by several Gandharas and Srut-kevalis.

Agam literature is also divided into two groups:

Ang-agams or Ang-pravista-agams

Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang-agams)

Ang-agams or Ang-pravista-agams:

Lord Mahavir's immediate disciples were known as Ganadharas. All Ganadharas possessed perfect knowledge (keval-jnan) and attained liberation at the end of their human life. They orally compiled the direct preaching of Lord Mahavir into twelve main texts (sutras). These texts are known as Ang-agams. Hence the Ang-agams are the oldest religious scriptures and the back bone of Jain literature.

The twelfth Ang-agam is called Drastivad. The Drastivad consists of fourteen Purva texts, also known as Purvas or Purva-agams. Among Ang-agams, Purvas were the oldest sacred texts. All Jain sects believe that knowledge of the Purvas (Drastivad) were gradually lost starting about one hundred fifty years after Lord Mahavir's nirvan (death). However, the subject matter of the Purvas are referenced by other Jain scriptures and literature.

The Digambar Jain sect also believes that the remaining eleven Ang-agams were gradually lost. All Swetambar Jains believe that the original intent and proper meaning of the eleven Ang-agams survived and were properly documented by elder monks (Acharyas) during the three conferences that were held by Swetambar ascetics in the past.

Present Status

Number of Number of Number of

Sects Ang-agams Ang-agams Ang-agams

Accepted Available Lost

Digambar 12 0 12

Swetambar Murtipujak 12 11 1

Swetambar Sthanakvasi 12 11 1

Swetambar Terapanthi 12 11 1

Ang-bahya-agams (outside of Ang-agams):

Monks who had knowledge of a minimum of ten Purvas were known as Srut-kevlis. They possessed the total knowledge of the Ang-agams. The Srut-kevlis wrote many texts (sutras) expanding the subject matter of the Ang-agams. Collectively these texts are called Ang-bahya-agams meaning outside of Ang-agams.

The different Jain sects accept different numbers of Ang-bahya texts. However the Digambar sect believes that they were also gradually lost starting about two hundred years after Lord Mahavir's Nirvan.

Present Status

Number of Number of Number of

Ang-bhya-agams Ang-bhya-agams Ang-bhya-

Accepted Available Lost

Digambar 14 0 14

Swetambar Murtipujak 34 34 0

Swetambar Sthanakvasi 21 21 0

Swetambar Terapanthi 21 21 0

AnIndiansummeris a period of unseasonably warm, dry weather that sometimes occurs inautumnin theNorthern Hemisphere. Indian summers are common in North America, Europe and Asia. The USNational Weather Servicedefines this as weather conditions that are sunny and clear with above average temperatures, occurring September to November. It is usually described as occurring after akilling frost.

It is a golden mixture of capitalism and socialism. Under this system there is freedom of economic activities and government interferences for the social welfare. Hence it is a blend of both the economies. The concept of mixed economy is of recent origin.

The developing countries like India have adopted mixed economy to accelerate the pace of economic development. Even the developed countries like UK, USA, etc. have also adopted ‘Mixed Capitalist System’. According to Prof. Samuelson, “Mixed economy is that economy in which both public and private sectors cooperate.” According to Murad, “Mixed economy is that economy in which both government and private individuals exercise economic control.”

Mixed economy has following main features:

(i) Co-existence of Private and Public Sector:

Under this system there is co-existence of public and private sectors. In public sector, industries like defence, power, energy, basic industries etc., are set up. On the other hand, in private sector all the consumer goods industries, agriculture, small-scale industries are developed. The government encourages both the sectors to develop simultaneously.

(ii) Personal Freedom:

Under mixed economy, there is full freedom of choice of occupation, although consumer does not get complete liberty but at the same time government can regulate prices in public interest through public distribution system.

(iii) Private Property isallowed:

In mixed economy, private property is allowed. However, here it must be remembered that there must be equal distribution of wealth and income. It must be ensured that the profit and property may not concentrate in a few pockets.

(iv) Economic Planning:

In a mixed economy, government always tries to promote economic development of the country. For this purpose, economic planning is adopted. Thus, economic planning is very essential under this system.

(v) Price Mechanism and Controlled Price:

Under this system, price mechanism and regulated price operate simultaneously. In consumer goods industries price mechanism is generally followed. However, at the time of big shortages or during national emergencies prices are controlled and public distribution system has to be made effective.

(vi) Profit Motive and Social Welfare:

In mixed economy system, there are both profit motive like capitalism and social welfare as in socialist economy.

Bloody Sundaywas a massacre that took place on 22ndJanuary 1905 in St Petersburg, wherein over 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded when they took out a procession to present an appeal to Tsar.

Bloody Sundayor Red Sundayis the name given to the events ofSunday, 22 January [O.S. 9 January] 1905 in St Petersburg, Russia, when unarmed demonstrators led by Father Georgy Gapon were fired upon by soldiers of the Imperial Guard as they marchedtowards the Winter Palace to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas 2

thanks

1) During 1904, prices of staple food increased and wages of Russian workers decreased by 20 per cent.2) Four members of the Assembly of Russian Workers who rebelled against this were dismissed at the Putilov Iron Works. As a result, more than one lakh workers started strike at St Petersburg demanding an increase in wages, reduction in their working hours and development in working conditions.3) Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries along with peasants and factory workers demanded a constitution during the revolution of 1905.4) Many were killed and injured by the police in the demonstration of workers led by Father Gapon.5) This event was known as bloody Sunday which resulted in chain of events called the 1905 Revolution.

It is a kind of electrical shock

Anaftershockis a smallerearthquakethat follows a larger earthquake, in the same area of the main shock, caused as the displaced crust adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Large earthquakes can have hundreds to thousands of instrumentally detectable aftershocks, which steadily decrease in magnitude and frequency according to known laws. In some earthquakes the main rupture happens in two or more steps, resulting in multiple main shocks. These are known asdoublet earthquakes, and in general can be distinguished from aftershocks in having similar magnitudes and nearly identical seismic waveforms.

Short-CircuitElectricalFaults

Ashort-circuit is an abnormal low-resistance connection between two nodes of anelectricalcircuit that are meant to be at different voltages. This results in an excessive electric current .TheShortCircuit is a more serious reason for a breaker tripping

Introduction

India has always been seen by our historians as a unique example ofunity in diversity. In spite of regional, linguistic, religious and ethnic differences dividing India into apparently irreconcilable social groups, we too have found India one and united.

Casteism

The discrimination on the basis of Caste and class is a major hurdle for National Integration of India. The people engaged in weakening the unity of the countrytried desperately to create divisions and rifts in the name of castes, creed and culture.

They succeeded in creating mistrust among the Indians and in tearing the façade of unity.

Linguism

India has multiple languages. Linguism is yet another major problem for National Integration.

The Indian states have been divided on the basis of linguistic basis. The bad people took advantage of this. Even the people living in one province began feeling alienated from those in other provinces.

The grade 80/100 means.. that bitumen will have a penetration between 8mm to 10 mm

and for 30/40...the penetration will be 3mm to 4 mm

so, 80/100 is more ductile due to higher penetration range.

लोकसभा अपनी प्रथम बैठक के लिए निर्धारित तिथि से पांच वर्षों तक चलती रहती है, यदि उसे कार्यावधि पूरी होने से पूर्व भंग नहीं कर दिया जाता, या उसकी कार्यावधि नहीं बढ़ाई जाती। इसके इतर राष्ट्रपति द्वारा उसे भंग करने का औपचारिक आदेश जारी न किए जाने पर भी सदन पांच वर्षों की अवधि की समाप्ति पर अपने आप भंग हो जाती है।

Introduction

India has always been seen by our historians as a unique example ofunity in diversity. In spite of regional, linguistic, religious and ethnic differences dividing India into apparently irreconcilable social groups, we too have found India one and united.

Casteism

The discrimination on the basis of Caste and class is a major hurdle for National Integration of India. The people engaged in weakening the unity of the countrytried desperately to create divisions and rifts in the name of castes, creed and culture.

They succeeded in creating mistrust among the Indians and in tearing the façade of unity.

Linguism

India has multiple languages. Linguism is yet another major problem for National Integration.

The Indian states have been divided on the basis of linguistic basis. The bad people took advantage of this. Even the people living in one province began feeling alienated from those in other provinces.

The Indian society has always been acaste-ridden, stratified hierarchical society and a certain segment of the society has always been affected by the inequalities.

According to the Indian Constitution, Protective discrimination is the policy of granting special privileges to the downtrodden and the underprivileged sections of society, especially women. They are supportive action programs in regions like India and the United States where there has been a history ofracial and caste discrimination, especially in India as it has been included in theconstitution and is institutionalized.

Specific provisions for reservations likeequality of opportunity in employment and education, that arein favor of the members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes have been made in theConstitutionof India.

The primary criticism raised against the policy of reservations is that it is at the cost of meritocracy and that it promotes mediocrity in a developing nation like India. This is very common in the counseling sessions for entry into an educational institution where a merit student might lose a seat to a mediocre reservation student.

Archaeology and literature are the importantsources ofmaterial remains of medieval India and itsancient history.

Some of the sources of ancient history are statues, orthostats - stone structures with carvings on them, iconography, royal images, material remains or artifacts and buildings, graves, pottery, beads, remnants of weapons, and many other physical items.

The various archaeological sources are Inscriptions, Numismatics, Excavated Materials, mostly artifacts likepottery, toys, tools, Buildings, and Monuments (Architecture), Statues and Paintings (Art/Sculptures).

Studying these architectural and literature remains help in understanding thehistorical civilization during the proto-historical period.

The literary texts provide proper understanding and recitation of the Vedas thatdrive the social norms in the prevailing social practices.

Global warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere—which acts as a blanket, trapping heat and warming the planet. As we burn fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas for energy or cut down and burn forests to create pastures and plantations, carbon accumulates and overloads our atmosphere. Certain waste management and agricultural practices aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global warming gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide. See the pie chart for a breakdown of heat-trapping global warming emissions by economic sector.Global Warming Is Urgent and Can Be AddressedCO2 survives in the atmosphere for a long time—up to many centuries—so its heat-trapping effects are compounded over time. Of the many heat-trapping gases, CO2 puts us at the greatest risk of irreversible changes if it continues to accumulate unabated in the atmosphere—as it is likely to do if the global economy remains dependent on fossil fuels for its energy needs. To put this in perspective, the carbon we put in the atmosphere today will literally determine not only our climate future but that of future generations as well.

The English statesman Warren Hastings (1732-1818) was the first governor general of British India. He established the system of civil administration that was the basis of Anglo-Indian security and prosperity.Warren Hastings was born on Dec. 6, 1732, in Churchill, near Daylesford, of an old but poor family. His mother died immediately after his birth, and his father, a clergyman, disappeared in the West Indies. Raised by an uncle, Hastings had a good education and attended Westminster. He became a clerk in the East India Company and reached Calcutta in October 1750. As was the custom, he augmented his salary by private trading. He was placed in charge of a factory weaving silk and cotton goods in Kasimbazar (Cossimbazar) and by 1756 was a member of the council, the local governing body of the company.

10) For a long time it was believed that Indians are stay at home people and our civilization was only of recent origin. But the excavation at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, which led to the dis­covery of Indus Valley civilization, has set all these doubts at naught.Though this civilisation is termed as Indus civilisation it covered even area beyond the Indus Valley. It extended from the upper Sutlej to the Gulf of Camba in the South and from Makran coast of the Arabian Sea in the west to the Jamuna-Ganges coun­try in the east. Thus the Indus civilisation was the largest of the early civilisations.

The Indus Valley, civilisation combines the features of the Neolithic and copper age. The excavation at Mohenjo-Daro have brought to light seven different it layers of buildings, which have assigned to three different period viz., early, intermediate and late. The early layers lie submerged under sub-soil water.

After due consideration the scholars have assigned 500 years to every age, and come to the inclusion that this civilisation must be having an early beginning because it must have taken the people quite a long time to develop such a urban life. Another criteria adopted by the scholars in determining the age of the Indus civilisation is discovery of seals m Mesopotamia, which are dated back to 2500 B.C.On the basis of these seals and other available material the scholars have suggested that the upper most layer belong to the period 230C-2200 B.C. and the lower layers must have belonged to earlier period. Therefore, the period which is roughly assigned to the Indus civilisation ranges between 2500 B.C. to 500 B.C.

The Laboratory Manual in Science for Upper Primary Stage is complementary to the ... opportunities to engage with the processes of science, observing things closely, recording...

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sorry it is wrong

Zoroastrianism is the correct answer

Minerals are an indispensable part of our lives.

(i) Almost everything we use, from a tiny pin to a towering building or a big ship, are all made from minerals.

(ii) The railway lines, and the tarmac (paving) of the roads, too are made from minerals.

(iii) Cars, buses, trains, aeroplanes are manufactured from minerals and run on power resources derived from the Earth.

Ishwar Chandra always raises the voice of women and uplift the status of women in west Bengal and India.He also do some reforms for the helpless Hindu widows and improve the situation of these poor and helpless widows.Before the Ishwar Chandra reforms,widows were treated as a burden in the society.

Ishwar also revealed and claimed that the widow remarriage is sanctioned by Vedic scriptures and his plea about widow remarriage were heard and accepted.After that these arguments of Ishwar Chndra were accepted and Hindu widow remarriage act 1856 was decreed on July 26,1856.

Vidyasagar was ideal example in society because he married his son to widow to make the example of social reforms in helpless society and initate also several matches for widows.

Ans :- The revolutionaries were those persons who believed in overthrowing the British government in India by means of mass uprising.

They wanted to organise a rebellion against the foreign government and even tampering with the loyalty of the army and guerilla warfare for overthrowing the foreign rule.

it is a traditional pratice to marry a child less than 18 year. This act leads to lots of problem for girls. child marriage is banned in india.

I want paragraph about child marriage

nyc pic breoooooooooo

child marriage is banned in India don't even practice it

Mahatma Gandhi called for large scale participation of women in India's freedom struggle. This changed the perception of other nationalist leaders. Gandhi said that participation of women in freedom struggle was an integral part of their dharma.

1. Harshvardhan2. Bāṇabhaṭṭa

Rajsri was the daughter of king

There are more than 3 crore cases pending in different courts of India. Many of these cases are pending for more than 10 years. Below are the approximate number of cases pending in Supreme Court, High Courts and District and Subordinate courts in India.

Around 60,000 cases are pending in Supreme Court.

Around 42 lakh cases are pending in different High Courts.

Around 2.7crore cases pending in District and Sub-ordinate Courts

At least five crore cases are filed every year and judges dispose of only two crore. The reasons being –

1. Increase in the awareness of rights by common man

The recent socio-economic advances and the resultant awareness oflegal rights, has given courage to common people toapproach courts of law for justice.New mechanisms (Eg: PIL) and new rights (Eg: RTI)

As government explicit made legislation for new rights like ‘Right to Information’ and ‘Right to Education’, aggrieved parties started to increasingly knock the doors of justice. Also,active judiciary has invented new devices like Public Interest Litigationwhich gave again resulted in more cases.

3. There are not enough judges

There are not enough judges (only around 21,000). Current Judge to Population ratio is 10 to 1 million. The Law Commission report in 1987 recommends atleast 50 to 1 million. Population has increased by over 25 crore since 1987.

The Centre says the States should take the lead in increasing the number of judges and the States say Centre should take the lead. As this tug-of-war goes on, judges’ strength remains the same and litigants remain in jail.

More than half the posts are vacant. There is a conflict between Judiciary and Executive regarding the appointment of Judges to Supreme Court and various High Courts.

Colonial legacies like paid long vacations – at a time when the number of judges is low, the appointed judges are taking long vacations, especially in High Courts.

4. There are not enoughcourts

Indian judiciary has insufficient resources. Both Center and States are not interested in increasing spending with respect to the judiciary.

Budgetary allocations for the whole judiciary are a pathetic 0.1% to 0.4% of the whole budget.

India needs more courts and more benches.

Modernization and computerization have not reached all courts.

5. There is too much litigation from the Government Side

The government is the largest litigant in India, responsible for nearly half the pending cases. Many of them are actually cases of one department of the government suing another, leaving decision-making to the courts. Also, it most of the cases, when government files a case, it is seen that the government side fails to prove the point.

6. Low judicial quality in lower courts

The Indian Judicial system has miserably failed to attract the best brains and the talented students.

As the quality of judges in lower courts is not always up to the mark, appeals are filed against the decisions in higher courts, which again increases the number of cases.

Consumer consciousness is being aware of your right as a consumer while buying any goods or services. Example :

1. It is common to see consumers bargaining with sellers for additional discounts below the MRP.

2. Because of conscious consumers, most of the sweet shops do not include the weight of the container when they weigh sweets.