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Amoghavarsha (814-880 C.E.): After Govinda – III, his son Amoghavarsha came to the throne in 814 C.E. lie was the greatest ruler among Rashtrakutas. His early name was Sharva, and Sreevijaya was another name by which he was known. He was only 14 years old, when he ascended the throne. His uncle Karkasuvamavarsha became his guardian. Taking advantage of this, many subordinate Kings under the Rashtrakutas, rose in rebellion against Amoghavarsha.

Achievements: The Ganga ruler Shivamara – II rose against Amoghavarsha and after His death his son Rachamalla continued the war against the Rashtrakutas. Amoghavarsha’s commander Bankesha fought against the Gangas. Neither side could achieve superemacy. At hist, Amoghavarsha gave his daughter Chandralabbe in marriage to the Ganga Prince Bhutuga -1.

This matrimonial alliance between them, finally brought peace with the Gangas.

In 830 C.E., Amoghavarsha declared war against Vijayadhitya of the Vengi Chalukyas. He defeated the Chalukyas finally-at Vingavalli. Later, he developed matrimonial relations with the Chalukyas by giving his daughter Sheelamahadevi to the Chalukyan prince Vishnuvardhana – V (son of Vijayadhitya) and brought peace in that front.

Amoghavarsha had similar relations with the Pallavas too, by giving his daughter Sankha in marriage to Nandivarma – III of the Pallava dynasty. Thus, Amoghavarsha achieved much peace by matrimonial alliances with the Gangas, Chalukyas and Pallavas.

According to the inscriptions of Neelagunda and Sinir, Amoghavarsha was respected in Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Malwa and Vengi Kingdoms. In his last days, he had to face the rebellion of his own son.

The Arab traveller Sulaiman, visited his court in 851 C.E. He remarked that ‘The Kingdom of Amoghavarsha was one of the four great Empires of the world”. (The others being the Roman Empire, the Chinese Empire and the Khalifa of Baghdad).

During his last days, Amoghavarsha had to face the rebellion of Yuvaraja Krishna. Banks faced this rebellion ably. In memory of this victory, Amoghavarsha built the city of ‘Bankapura’ to honour Bankesha and made him the Governor of Banavasi. He built the new Rashtrakuta capital of Malakheda. Inscriptions have described that “Amoghavarsha’s capital was so great and grand, that it would put to shame even the capital of Lord Indra”.

Religion and Literature : Even though Amoghavarsha was the follower of Jainism, he extended equal respect and importance to other religions. He granted liberal grants and endowments to all religious institutions. He was a great devotee of Goddess Mahalakshmi of Kolhapur. Sanjan inscription says that he cut off his left thumb as a sacrifice to Mahalakshmi, to protect his subjects from plague and famine.

Amoghavarsha was peace loving, a patron of literature and a scholar himself. He wrote Trashnottara Ratnamala’ in Sanskrit. He patronised scholars like Jinasenacharya, Mahaveeracharya, Shakatayana, Srivijaya and others, Srivijaya wrote “Kaviraja Marga” in Kannada. Kaviraja’marga was the first literary work in Kannada. It refers to the fact that Karnataka was extending from Cauvery to Godavari. Amoghavarsha had titles like Nrupatunga, Athishayadhavala, Veeranarayana, Nitinirantara, Rajasimha, Rattamarthanda, Laxmi Vallabendra, Sri Vallabha etc., vested on him.

Ashoka the Great: Ashoka was the greatest ruler of the Mauryas and one of the renowned Rulers of the world. He is mentioned in his edicts as ‘Devanampriya’ and “Priyadarshi’. He considered his subjects as his own children and considered that the Primary duty of the King was to promote the welfare of the people. He came to power in 273 BCE, but his coronation was celebrated only in 269 BCE.

Kalinga War (261 BCE) : Ashoka waged a war against the Kalinga Kingdom as he considered war and annexation as the rightful duty of a King. It was this imperialistic consideration that prompted Ashoka to conquer Kalinga. Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka tells us that the war ended with bloodshed and misery. One lakh people died, 1.5 lakh were taken as prisoners of war. This event had a deep impact on his mind. Kalinga War was the turning point in the life of Ashoka becuase after the war he embraced Buddhism by the influence of Upagupta and followed the principles of non-violence.

Ashoka was filled with sorrow at the sight of all that bloodshed, that this became his last war as he decided not to wage wars in future. He changed his foreign policy from ‘Digvijaya or Bherighosha’ (Beating of war drums) to ‘Dharmaghosha orVijaya (winning the hearts of the people). He declared that ‘The real conquest was the conquest by right path and love and not by might and sin”. Ashoka did not wage any war further and dedicated his whole life for the propagation of Dhairna and Peace.

Ashokan Empire extended from Kashmir and Afghanisthan in the North to Karnataka in the South, from Bengal in the East to Sindu and Baluchis than in the West.

Edicts of Ashoka: Ashoka issued a number of Inscriptions which throw light on the religion, society and administration of the Mauryans. Ashokan inscriptions are found throughout the extent of his Empire. The languages of these edicts were Pali and Prakriti and the script used was Brahmi and Kharoshti. Brahmi script, which was a riddle for a long time was deciphered by James Princep in 1831. Ashokan inscriptions are found in places like Pataliputra, Rampurava, Rummindei, Sravasti, Bodhgaya, Bhabru, Barabara, Sanchi, Kausambi, Maski, Taxila etc., The edicts are classified into 1) Major rock edicts, 2) Minor rock edicts, 3) Pillar inscriptions and 4) Cave inscriptions.

Edicts in Karnataka: A number of Ashokan edicts have been discovered in Karnataka. They have been found at Maski (Raichur dist). Gavimatha and Palkigonda (Koppal Dist), Siddapur, Brahmagiri and Jatingarameshwar(Chitradurga dist) Nittur and Udayagollam (Bellary Dist) and Sannathi (Yadagiri). Most of the edicts of Ashoka, preach moral values to the people and about the teachings of Buddha. The Maski and Calcutta edicts refer to King Ashoka as ‘Devanampriya Asokasa’. Thus these edicts helped in identifying the other edicts of Ashoka. He wanted to inculcate the virtues of practical morality, compassion to animals, reverence and obedience to teachers, elders and parents, truthfulness etc.,

Religion: Ashoka made a great contribution to religion. He believed that a moral life was a pre-requisite of happy life. He propogated the ideas of developing virtues like truthfulness, purity of thought, kindness, honesty, gratitude, self-restraint and compassion. He laid emphasis on simple living, high thinking and leading a good moral life. The Bhabru edict clearly indicates Ashoka’s faith in Buddha, Sangha and Dharma. Ashoka took many measures for the spread of Buddhism.

He visited the holy places from the life of Buddha. He constructed monasteries and gave liberal grants to them. He followed the policy of religious tolerance. He assumed the title ‘Devanmapriya’ (beloved of the Oods). He spread the doctrines of Buddha by engraving them on rock edicts throughout the Empire. He appointed officers called Dharmamahamathras, Yukthas, Rajjukas and Shree Adhyaksha Mahamatras to spread Dharma among the people. Ashoka organised the 3rd Buddhist council at Pataliputra in 250 BCE, to settle the internal differences among the Buddhists. He took much interest and adopted special measures to propagate Buddhism. He sent Buddhist missionaries to far off lands to preach the Gospel of Buddha.

He deputed his son Mahendra amd daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism. It was on account of his extensive propagation that Buddhism became a religion of the masses in India and also spread to Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, Burma and many South¬East Asian Countries. He took many welfare activities and made arrangements to feed the poor and physically disabled people. He was concerned with the moral and spiritual welfare of his people. H.G Wells remarks that “Amidst the tens of thousands of Majesties and Royal Highnesses and the like, the name of Ashoka shines and shines along like a Star”.

Ashoka always wished for mutual reverence, toleration and morality.

The Maski and Calcutta edicts refer to the King as ‘Devanampriya Ashokasa’.

Mauryans built several buildings, palaces and monuments. 

They used wood, bricks and stones as building materials. 

Stupas: The stupas were dome like mounds of brick or stone, built in honor of Buddha. The purpose of erecting stupas was to enshrine some of the relics of Buddha. It is believed that Ashoka built about 84,000 stupas all over his Empire, The best of them are still surviving at Sanchi, Barahut and Saranath. Sanchi stupa is the biggest Stupa.

Rock-cut halls or Caves: Ashoka and his grandson Dasharatha built caves for meditation for the Buddhist monks. The Sudhama cave which was dedicated to the Ajivika monks and Lamasha Rishi Cave at the Barabar hills near Gaya (Bihar) were built by Ashoka. The largest cave of Dasaratha’s time was the Gopi cave at the Nagarjuna hills.

Monolithic Pillars : Stone pillars of various designs were erected during the reign of Ashoka. Such pillars were generally installed in front of places of worship. Each pillar weighs about 50 tons and measures 30 feet in height. The pillars consist of a base, a shaft and on top of these pillars there are figures of animals such as lion, elephant or horse on an inverted lotus called Capitals.

The most important among them is the pillar at Saranath. It consists of an inverted lotus, the Dharmachakra and on the abacus four lions which are seated back to back. The Chakra and the Animals all have a deep symbolism and are connected with the life and teachings of Buddha in some form. The Saranath Capital was adopted as our national emblem by the Indian Government on 26^th January 1950.

Palaces: The palaces in Pataliputra were renowned for their beauty. Megasthenes has given a good description of this city. According to them, the Royal Palace was one of the best in the world. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien has also given us a good description of that period.

The greatness of Ashoka is not only due to his territorial expansion, but for his moral greatness and the practical ethics which he propagated. The Kalinga war was a turning point in the life of Ashoka. Seeing the extent of the loss of human li fe and bloodshed, Ashoka was fi 1 led with sorrow and vowed to stop ‘Digvijaya or Bhcri Ghosha (Beating of war drums) and to take up ‘Dharmavijaya’ (Winning the hearts of the people). He declared “The Chief conquest is the conquest by right path and love and not by might and sin”. The Bhabru edict clearly indicates Ashoka’s faith in Buddha, Sangha and Dharmas.

The intention of Ashoka was to spread Buddhism not only in India but also outside India. 

He took many measures for the same. They were:

• He visited the holy places from the life of Buddha such as Lumbini, Kapilavastu. Gaya, Saranath and arranged discourses on religion. 
• He constructed a large number of monasteries all over the Empire and gave liberal grants for such institutions. 
• He spread the doctrines of Buddha by engraving them on rocks, pillars and on the walls of the caves throughout his Empire. 
• Ashoka appointed officers called Dharmamahamathras, Yukthas and Rajjukas to spread Buddhism among people. He also appointed Sthree Adhyaksha Mahamalras to take care of women and bring religious awareness among them. 
• He organised the 3rd Buddhist Council at Pataliputra which was presided by Moggaliputra Tissa in 250 BCE. The purpose was to settle the differences among the Buddhists.
• Ashoka sent missionaries to preach Buddhism in Afghanisthan, Burma, Srilanka and Europe. He deputed his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamithra to Srilanka with a Bodhi Sapling as a symbol of peace. 
• He undertook many welfare activities like digging of wells, building rest houses, planting of fruit-bearing trees etc., He constructed hospitals for men and animals. He made arrangements to feed the poor and physically disabled persons. His aim was “Service and Sacrifice”.

Ashoka believed that a moral life was the pre-requisite for a happy life. He laid emphasis on simple living, high thinking and a good moral life. On account of his extensive propagation, Buddism became a religion of the masses in India and it also spread to Nepal, Tibet, China, Japan, Burma and many Southeast Asian countries and thus became a world religion during his period.

Upa Gupta, the Buddhist monk converted Ashoka to Buddhism.

Chandragupta Maurya 324-300 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan dynasty. There is very little information about his parents, his birth and early childhood, lie was born in the capital city of Pataliputra. Kautilya, better known as Chanakya, a brahmin from Takshashi la took the orphan under his care, educated him in all the princely requirements and trained him to be a worthy commander and Ruler. Chandragupta was fortunate to come under the influence of this great thinker, politician and statesman.

Military Achievements:

1. Conquests of Punjab: Chandragupta built a strong army under the guidance of Chanakya and defeated the petty Rulers of Punjab and annexed their regions. He then marched against Magadha. 

2. Defect of the Nanda ruler: Chandragupta made several attempts to defeat the Nandas. Chanakya had vowed to depose Dhanananda, because he had insulted Chanakya. Dhanananda was finally defeated and killed and Chandragupta Maurya became the King of Magadha and established the Mauryan dynasty. After overthrowing and ending Dhanananda’s oppressive rule, Chandragupta consolidated his power and freed the country from foreign occupation. The Greek Governors appointed by Alexander in the Sindh and Punjab provinces were defeated and the territories were annexed by Chandragupta.

3. War with Seleucus: After the death of Alexander, the eastern part of his Empire went over to Seleucus. A war ensued between Seleucus and Chandragupta Maurya. Seleucus was defeated, and he had to sign a treaty with Chandragupta and had to surrender the provinces of Kabul, Afghanistan, Kandahar and Baluchistan. This victory of Chandragupta spread his Kingdom upto the frontiers of Hindukush (Afghanisthan) in the north west. Seleucus maintained friendly relations with the Mauryas and sent Megasthanes as his A mbassador to Patal  putra.

Assessment: Chandragupta was undoubtedly one of the greatest Rulers of India. He expelled the Greeks from the country. According to Jain tradition, in the last days of his reign, Chandragupta abdicated the throne and embraced Jainism under the influence of the Jain scholar Bhadrabahu. lie spent his last days at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka and died by performing ‘Sallekhana’ in 300 BCE.

Dhanananda was the Nanda Ruler defeated by Chandragupta Maurya.

Seleucus sent Megasthanes as Ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya.

The four vedas are 

1. Rig veda 

2. Yajur veda 

3. Sama veda 

4. Atharvana veda

Seleucus was the Greek Ruler defeated by Chandragupta Maurya.

Chandragupta Maurya spent his last days at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka.

Hinayana and Mahayana are the two sects of Buddhism.

Musk elephant was the royal emblem of the Gangas.

Pulikeshi-II assumed the title‘Parameshwara’.

Sabha and Samithi were the two politcal institutions which assisted the King in the administration of the land during the vedic period.

Shravanabelagola (Hassan dist) is called as the museum of Jainism.

Chandragupta Maurya.

The Shwetambaras (who wear white clothes) and the Digambaras (who do not wear any clothes).

Swastik is the symbol of Jainism. Swastik means auspiciousness. It represents the world wheel.

Soma and sura were the intoxicants consumed by the vedic people.

Gargi, Maitreyi, Shashwati, Lopamudra, Apala, Arundhathi, Ghosha, Vishwavana were some of the famous learned women of the vedic period.

Rishabhanatha was the first Thirthankara who founded Jainism. (It is popularly believed that Mahaveera, the 24th thirthankara, was the founder of Jainism).

Nishka (a piece of gold) and Shatamana were the coins used.

There were no regular educational institutions in the present sense of the term. Education was imparted in Gurukulas, Pathashalas, Agraharas, Temples and Ghatikas. Education on the whole was oral. Education was imparted by learned teachers to the students, who stayed with the teacher throughout their educational career. The aim of education was to develop knowledge, character, truthfulness and devotion. The teacher enjoyed great respect. The Panchalaparishad was a great academy of learning.

Higher education was imparted at the universities like Kanchi andTaxila. Education commenced with a ceremony called upanayanam. Both men and women received education. Gargi, Maithreyi, Lopamudra, Shaswathi and others were important women scholars. Vedas, Puranas, philosophy, logic, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, medicine etc, were the important subjects taught. Sanskrit was the medium of instruction.

Science: Aryans achieved great progress in mathematics, geometry, medicine and metal Iurgy. Calculations like the distance between the Sun and Moon, Earth and Moon and Sun and Earth were known to them. They also had knowledge of the occurance of eclipses, movement of Comets etc. Cure of diseases was done by using herbs, roots, leaves, oils, salts and mud. They followed the lunar calendar. We can see in the manufacture of the chariots, textiles, metal goods, musical instruments, ornaments etc of these people, the progress made by them in technology.

Political condition: During the early vedic age, their organization was tribal in character. Some of the important tribes were the Bharatas the Purus, Yadus, Anu etc. They were called ‘Janas’. The primary unit of the administration was the village (Grama) and Gramini was the head of the grama. Next administrative unit was the ‘Vis’ headed by ‘Vispathi’. The King (Rajan) was the head of the state.

Duty of the Kings: The tribes quarrelled with each other over cattle ownership and territories. The primary duty of the King was the protection of his tribe and he received gifts from the people. King (Rajan) was assisted by the purohita, sangrahatri, senapati, vispathis and graminis in the administration. Sabha (group of elders) and Samithi (group of experts) acted as a check on the possible misuse of power by the King. Sabha and samithi were two powerful bodies, who acted on democratic lines and decisions were taken by a majority of votes. The laws were based on customs and traditions.

During the later vedic period, the Kingdoms were divided into provinces and further subdivided into gopas, vishyas and gramas. Kingship became hereditary. Kura, Panchala, Kashi, Videha, Vidharbha etc., were the important Kingdoms. Imperialism came into existence. Kings began to perform (yagas) sacrifices like Rajasuya, Ashwamedha and Vajapeya for establishing their political supremacy. The Kings were assisted bby acouncil of ministers and officers. The sabha and samithi also continued to monitor.

The military consisted of infantry, elephant riders and the cavalry. Simple weapons of the early vedic age were replaced in the later vedic age by improved war weapons like bows and arrows, swords, spears, maces, axes etc. Helmets and armours used for protection made their appearance.

• Brahmacharya (acquiring education) 
• Gruhastya (house holder) 
• Vanaprastha (dwelling in the forest) and 
• Sanyasa (complete renunciation)

Vedic religion is also known as ancient (sanatan) Hinduism and Brahmanical religion. The early vedic Aryans worshipped nature Gods. They worshipped Indra (God of Heaven), Varuna (rain), Agni (fire), Vayu (air), Surya (sun), Pruthvi (earth), Soma (plants), and Aditi and Usha the female Goddesses. There was no idol worship. The mode of worship was in the form of prayers and sacrifices.

The vedic people believed that God was most powerful, strong and moved the universe. Cow was considered a sacred animal and slaughter of cows was forbidden. Rig veda prescribed elaborate rules and procedures for the performance of sacrifices. Hotri, Adhvasya and Udgathri were the important priests to get favours from the God. Sacrifices were performed with milk, grains, ghee, soma and juice etc.

In the later vedic period, the practice of religion became highly complex and rigid. Idol worship came into existence. The number of Gods increased, and new deities like Brahma, Vishnu, Maheshwara, Ganesha, Kartikeya, Parvati, Laxmi, Kali, Durga etc. came to the worshipped. The practice of vedic religion became costly. They believed in magic and considered that with the help of magic and sorcery, many evils befalling could be prevented. New ideas had developed about soul. Vamas, Ashramas and Purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha) were an integral part of the vedic religion.

The entire life of a Hindu was guided by samskaras. It also believes in the concept of the transmigration of soul. The main objective of the soul is to attain salvation (Moksha). They developed the concept of monism-Atman (the true self) and Brahman (the ultimate reality). Knowledge was the best means of salvation. Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Yoga were prescribed as the many paths to attain salvation. They also began to believe in the Karma theory. Karma must be rewarded in the next life. So Aryans lived a very pure, simple and contented life. The sacred books of Hindus are the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Smrithis. Ramayana and Mahabharata were also given much importance.

Social conditions: The earlly vedic people developed a highly organised society, that was based on the principle of monogamy. Polygamy was practiced only among the royal families. The eldest male member was the head of the family and was called ‘Kulapathi ’ or ‘Grihapathi ’. There was no system of child marriage but widow remarriage prevailed. Marriage was considered a sacred bond and after marriage the bride lived in the house of the bridegroom. Usually a joint family system prevailed among the Aryans.

Social divisions: The social divisions, chaturvarnas were based on professions. They were Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Sudra. People could change professions and hence change their varnas. Thus, there was mobility among the varnas.

Position of the women: The status of women in the family and in the society was high and they had equal rights with men. Women were educated and highly civilized for e.g., Gargi, Maithreyi, Apala, Ghosha, Vishwavara and others. Girls had considerable freedom in selecting their life partners. Women freely moved out of their houses and attended public functions. A high standard of morality was maintained.

Food and entertainment: People consumed wheat, barley, rice, fruit, vegetables, fish and meat and intoxicating drinks like soma and sura. Aryans wore clothes made of cotton and wool. Ornaments were used by both men and women, made of gold, silver and flowers. Gambling, chariot and horse racing, hunting and dance were the popular entertainments. Education on the whole was oral. It aimed at the development of character and was religions in nature.

During the later vedic period, polygamy and polyandry came into practice. Patriarchal system still continued, and the joint family system was quite common. Women were still allowed to get higher education and participate in the religious rites. But the women were now under the protection of father or husband or a son. On the whole, position of the women had considerably come down.

Varnas turned into many castes. Caste system became hereditary and very rigid. Brahmanas and Kshatriyas enjoyed a higher status compared to Vaishyas and Shudras. Life of an individual was divided into four stages called ashramas. They were Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa. Education was imparted by learned teachers to the students. The aim of education was to develop knowledge, character, truthfulness and devotion. Gurus enjoyed great respect.

Living standard of the people was usually the same as it was in the early vedic civilization. People still lived in villages and small towns. Agriculture was the main profession of the people.

Cattle (cows) was considered as wealth by the Aryans.

Agriculture was the main occupation of the Aryans.

Vaddaradhane is called the first prose work of old Kannada.

King Hal a wrote Gathasapthasati in Prakrit language.

Megasthanes the Greek Ambassador wrote the book Indica.

Pushyabhuthi was the originator of the Vardhanas.

The Nasik cave inscription.

Halmidi inscription issued by Kakusthavarma in 450 CE, was the first Kannada inscription.

Uttarameruru inscription of Paranthaka -1, tells about the Chola village administration.

Hieun Tsang wrote a book “Si-Yu-Ki.”

Pulikeshi – II issued the Aihole inscription. It gives the details about the campaigns of Pulikeshi – II.

Aryabhatta wrote Surya siddhanta, Aryabhata, and Dasagitika (Trigonometry).

V.A. Smith the historian called Samudragupta as the ‘Indian Napolean’.

Vijayabhattarika wrote ‘Kaumudi Mahotsava’.

Rajashekar a was the author of Kavyamimamse.

Literature: The Gupta age was also the golden age of Sanskrit literature. Guptas were not only warriors, but also patronized literature and science. Harisena’s prasasli as recorded on the Allahabad pillar, is in chaste Sanskrit prose and verse. Itcontains 33 lines and is a remarkable example of the poetry of the Gupta age. Samudragupta himself was a poet and scholar and he got the title of ‘Kaviraja’. Chandragupta-II patronized the ‘Nine Gems’ (navarathnas), the Sanskrit scholars in his court.

They were i) Kalidasa (Poet), ii) Dhanvantari (Physician), iii) Varahamihira (Astronomer), iv) Amarasimha (Lexicographer), v) Shanku (Architect), vi) Kshapanaka (Astrologer), vii) Vararuchi, (Grammarian), viii) Vetalabhatta (Magician) and ix) Ghatakarpara (Poet).

The most outstanding literary figure of that age was Kalidasa. He wrote a number of excellent works like Shakuntala, Malavikagnim’itra, Raghuvamsha, Kumarasambhava, Meghadhoota, Ritusamhara, Vikramorvashiyam etc. Both in drama and poetry, he stands unsurpassed and unrivalled even today. Kalidasa emerged as the King of all poets and hailed as the ‘Indian Shakespeare’.

Bhasa was another Sanskrit dramatist of this period. He was the author of 13 dramas, which are considered as the treasure in Sanskrit literature. The important dramas include Swapnavasava, Charudatta and Urubhanga. Vishakadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devi Chandraguptam. Sudraka wrote Mrichchakatika. Bharavi was the author of Kirathaijuneeyam. Dandi wrote Dashakumaracharita and Kavyadhara, Vishnusimha composed Panchatantra and Amarasimha wrote Amarakosa.

The Nitisara of Kamandaka and the smritis of Yagnavalkya are also noteworthy. Some of the buddhist scholars of this period were Asanga, Vasubandhu, Dignaga, Chandragomin and others, who wrote many works in Sanskrit. The literary standard of this period was high. Sanskrit became the common as well as the official language. Naturally, this led to a renaissance in Sanskrit literature. The development of Sanskrit reached its zenith.

Development of science: The Gupta age made tremendous progress in the field of science, especially in the disciplines of Astronomy, Medicine, Astrology, Mathematics and Metallurgy. Dhanvantri and Vagbhatta were great physicians. Aryabhatta, Varahamihira and Brahmagupta were the great astronomers and mathematicians of that age.

1) Aryabhatta was one of the greatest scientists of the Gupta period. He wrote two great works on astronomy namely, Aryabhata and Suryasiddhanta. His major contributions : i) To find the place value of numbers from 1 to 9, ii) The discovery of the exact value of 22pi (TC) viz or 3.14159, iii) The formula to calculate the area of a triangle, iv) The true 7 cause of why solar and luner eclipses occur, v) The rotation and revolution of Earth on its axis, vi) The decimal system of notation. An indian satellite sent into space has been named Aryabhatta in his honour.

2) Varahamihira wrote Brihathsamhithe, Panchasiddantika, Brihadjataka and Laghujataka. He studied and wrote about the movements of the heavenly bodies. He was an authority on Astronomy, Botany, Mathematics and Geography.

3) Brahmagupta was the great astronomer who wrote the book ‘Brahmaputra Siddhanta’. He declared that all things fall to the Earth, by a law of nature. He showed the importance of zero.

4) Bhaskaracharya was a renowed mathematician.

5) Vridha Vagbhata was the great physician and author of Ashtanga sangraha.

6) Dhanvantari was a great physician and he wrote Ayurveda Nighantu. He is regarded as the ‘Father of Indian medicine’ (Ayurveda).

7) Charaka and Sushrutha were physicians, and wrote samhithes. The iron pillar near the Kutb minar atMeharauli (Delhi) is the best example of the progress in metallurgy achieved by the Guptas. That pillar’s weight is about 6 tonnes, height 23.8 ft and a diameter of 16.4 inches at the base. It is still free from rust, even though it is exposed to the elements, like wind, rain, sun etc., all these years.

Samudragupta (335 to 375 CE): The most outstanding ruler of the Gupta dynasty was Samudragupta, who was the son and successor of Chandragupta-I. He was an ambitious, ablest and most distinguished ruler and wanted to be an ‘Emperor’ (Chakravarthi).

The Allahabad pillar inscription (Prayag) throws much light on his conquests and personal qualities. The author of this edict was Ilarisena, the court poet as well as the commander – in – chief of Samudragupta. It is in Sanskrit prose and verse and contains 33 lines. The inscription is in the nature of a prasasti (ponegric). The military conquests mentioned in the inscription may be divided into four distinct campaigns.

1) Northern campaign (Aryavartha): The early yearssof his reign were spent in subduing the provinces of the Gangetic plain called ‘Aryavartha’. According to the inscription, he defeated nine Kings in his northern campaign and annexed their territories into his Empire. The Rulers who were defeated by Samudragupta were i) Nandin, ii) Balavarman, iii) Chandravarman, iv) Nagadatta, v) Nagasena, vi) Ganapathinaga, vii) Achyutanaga, viii) Mathila and ix) Rudradeva. After the conquest, he performed Ashwamedha yaga and became the master of Aryavartha.

2) Conquest of the Forest Kingdoms (Central India): Samudragupta conquered the forest Kingdoms of Abhiras, Madrakas, Kakas, Reva, Jabalpur, Nagapur and Bhaghelkhanda in the upper Vindya regions, many of whom surrendered to him voluntarily.

3) Southern Campaign: After consolidating his authority in the north, he turned his attention towards the South and took an expedition. Samudragupta derived hisjiame and fame by his compaigns in South India and he did not extend his direct rule over this region. The inscription refers to the twelve Kings of the south who were defeated and later reinstated to rule under him. They were: i) Mahendra of Kosala, ii) Vyagraraja of Mahaknathara, iii) Mantaraja of Kowrala, iv) Mahendra of Pistapura, v) Swamydatta of Kottura, vi) Damana of Yarandapalti, vii) Vishnugopa of Kanchi, viii) Hasthivarman of Vengi, ix) Neelaraja of Avamuktha, x) Ugrasena of Palakkad, xi) Kubera of Devarashtra and xii) DhananjayaofKustalapura.

The southern states were far away from his capital Pataliputra, and so they could not be brought under his direct control. The defeated rulers accepted his sovereignty and paid him tributes. No territory was annexed.

4) Annexation of the frontier Kingdoms: The frontier area also came under the control of Samudragupta. They accepted his authority and paid tributes to him. They were Kamarupa (Assam), Samataka (Bengal), Karthripura (Punjab), Devaka (Nepal) and Rohilkhanda.

5) Extended the Kingdom: Samudragupta’s Empire had extended from Bengal in the east to Punjab in the west, Himalayas in the north and upto the Vindya mountains in the south. The fame of Samudragupta reached far and wide. He maintained friendly relations with Ceylon. He was triumphant everywhere in India. Hence, Dr. V.A. Smith, the historian has called him as the ‘The Indian Napolean’. After his conquests, he performed ‘Ashwameda Yaga (horse sacrifice) to commemorate his victories. He also issued gold coins of various denominations. He composed many poems and thereby earned the title ‘Kaviraja’.

The Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta, informs about his expeditions.

Aihole inscription was composed by Ravi Keerthi.

The twelve southern Kingdoms defeated by Samudragupta were, Mahendra of Kosala, Vyagraraja of Mahakanthara, Mantharaja of Kowrala, Mahendra of Pistapura, Swamydatta of Kottura, Damana of Yarandapalli, Vishnugopaof Kanchi, Hasthivarman of Vengi, Neelaraja of Avamuktha, Ugrascna of Palakkad, Kubcra of Devarasthra and Dhananjaya of Kustalapura.