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India follows contralised planning methodology and Planning Commission is responsible for planning. Planning Commission is a statutory body, whose Chairman is the Prime Minister of the country. The commission also has a vice – chairman and several other members. India has adopted five – year planning system and till date 12 five – year plans and 6 annual plans have been completed. At present, NITI Aayog has been formed in place of Planning Commission.

Mountainous area of India is only 17% of the total area of the country.

Himalayan mountainous region is famous for: 

1. Bio – diversity. 

2. Medicinal plants, flora and fauna, and for many species of wildlife.

The specific states of total mountainous region/area in India are North – east states, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.

Two most appropriate industries for mountainous regions are: 

1. Cottage Industry and Handloom Industry 

2. Tourism Industry

11% of the total population of India resides in mountainous regions of the country.

The main development programs for mountainous regions include – Gardening, plantation, animal husbandry, poultry, agriculture, forestry, soil conservation and rural industries.

It was started by late Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi in the year 1975. It was later reconstituted in the year 1982 and 1986. This program underwent policy changes from time to time. In the year 2006, it was reconstituted. According to T.P.P This program is included in National Common minimum program, United Nations, and in SAARC social charter’s millennium development goals. This reconstituted program was called 20 – point program. The plan was approved in 5th October, 2006. Main objective of this program was to remove poverty, increase productivity, reduce the inequalities of income, social and economic development etc.

Planning is the process through which the resources of any given place are used to their optimum level to achieve economic prosperity. Through planning, the anticipated aims can be made a reality. Planning is related to long – term social and economic development of the country.

In India, planning started along with the establishment of Planning Commission on 15th March 1950. In reality, the requirement of planning was felt from the time of independence in 1947. Consequently, inspired by Soviet Union, a socialist country, the five – year plans were constituted in India.

The cycle of planning started with second five year plan with the concept of Prof. PC. Mahalanobi’s development model.

Planning started in India in 1951, Till present time, 6 annual plans and twelve five – year plans have been made and implemented. Five – year plans priorities planning and aim to achieve their objectives. 

Importance of planning in Five Year Plans can be assessed by some of its achievements:

1. Agricultural output has increased due to 5 – year plans. 

2. Development of industries. 

3. Increase in transportation and communication facilities. 

4. Promotion of education. 

5. Expansion of total size of foreign trade. 

6. Increase in national income, domestic savings, appropriation rates, increased self – dependence.

Duration – 1st April 1974 to 31st March 1978.

Objectives:

1. Eradication of poverty. 

2. Economic self dependence. Apart from these two, some other objectives were : 

3. Increase in opportunities with increased production. 

4. Consumers basic necessities such as education, health, family planning, nutrition were all addressed by national programs.

5. Social welfare. 

6. Encouraging Agriculture related industries. 

7. Public collection and distribution.

Models:

Three models were used in this plan: 

1. Joint future plan. 

2. Issued plan. 

3. Utility Model.

Financial arrangement: 

Proposed expenditure 37,250 crores.

Achievements and Shortfalls:

1. Strengthening of economy 

2. Increase in development rate, Agricultural area, food production were the objectives. 

3. Increase in Industrial production

Due to fiscal deficit economy, prices increased. Due to change in government, the five – year plan was ended one year earlier in 1978.

Following are the main features of dictatorship :

1. Supreme place to state: 

In dictatorship, the state is supreme. There is none over the state. The state is given a higher place than people, community, unions, organizations, institutions, religion, etc. The main motto of the state is to wage wars and fetch victory.

2. Against democratic process: 

Dictatorship is regarded as the enemy of democracy. There is no place for justice, equality and freedom for its people in dictatorship. 

3. Belief in power and violence: 

The basis of dictatorship is power, violence, use of force. Dictators get power of governance by use of force and they remain in power with the threat of force. 

4. One – party administration: 

In this arrangement, there is monopoly of a single party in governance. There is no opposition to administration, and no criticism of administration. In military dictatorship, there is no permission even to organize political parties. 

5. End of opposition: 

If a person criticizes a state in dictatorship, he is arrested and put behind the bars. All the activities of opposition are prohibited. 

6. Centralization of powers: 

In dictatorship, all sorts of powers are centralized. Snatching power from lower level, the power is increased at the higher level. 

7. Belief in imperialism: 

Dictatorship is an imperialistic ideology. It wants expansion of its state and adopts the path of war for this purpose. In this way, there is no importance of the concept of world peace, Internationale stability and ‘global family’ in dictatorship. 

8. Public Opinion neglected: 

Dictatorship regards its ideology as perfect and true. It controls education, literature, press, television, etc., which are the sources of formation of public opinion, in order to propagate its ideology and to oppose the ideologies of opposition. 

9. Worship of one man: 

In dictatorship, only one person is the supreme leader who is regarded as the symbol of national unity. 

10. Enemy to personal liberty: 

In dictatorship, all sorts of civic liberties are curtailed. The dictator cannot tolerate opposition of any kind. 

11. Neglect of International public opinion: 

Dictatorship operates its foreign policy strictly for safety of its own national interest and development and if there arises a necessity, it can also neglect international public opinion and institutions.

The constitution as a whole came into force with effect from January 26, 1950.

Our constitution lays down some directives in the nature of moral guides to the state. These are non – enforceable. The idea of incorporating directives or ideals or goals in the constitution was borrowed from the Irish constitution. The directive principles are contained in part IV of the constitution, in Article 36 to 51.

Full list of the Directive Principles: 

Article 39: The state shall, in particular, direct its policy towards securing:

1. That the citizens, men, and women equally, have the right to an adequate means to livelihood. 

2. That the ownership and control of the material resources to be useful for the common good. 

3. That the operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common determinant. 

4. That there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women. 

5. That the health and strength of the workers, men, and women, and the tender age of children are not used and that citizens are not forced by economic necessity to enter vocations unsuitable to their age or strength. 

6. That children are given opportunities to develop in a healthy manner and in conditions of freedom and dignity and that childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and against moral and material abandonment.

Classification of Directives: The directive principles are embodied in Articles from 36 to 51. They cover a wide range of state activities concerning social, economic, legal, educational and International principles. They are classified into four categories, such as welfare, Gandhian, liberal and general principles.

Welfare Principles: These principle aims at the attainment of the welfare state. Article 38 provides that the state shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting a social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of national life.

Article 39 provides that the state shall direct its policy towards securing that.

1. The citizens, men, and women equally have the right to an adequate means of livelihood. 

2. The ownership and control of the material resources of the community are so distributed as to sub serve the common good. 

3. The operation of the economic system does not result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriment. 

4. There is equal pay for equal work for both men and women. 

5. The health and strength of workers, men, women, and children are not abused and that citizens are not forced to enter vocations unsuitable to their age. 

6. Childhood and youth are protected against exploitation and moral and mental abandonment.

Article 41 ensures that the right to work education and public assistance in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement and other cases of undeserved want.

Article 42 provides that provisions shall be made by the state for securing just and human conditions of work and maternity relief.

Article 43 exhorts the state to secure to all workers – industrial, agricultural work, a living wage, conditions of work, decent standard of life, enjoyment of leisure, social and cultural opportunities.

Article 46 provides that the state shall take special care of the economic and educational interest of the weaker sections particularly of SC’s and ST’s and protect them from social injustice and exploitation.

Article 47 states that are made duty-bound to raise the level of nutrition, the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health.

Gandhian Principles: The Gandhian philosophy finds its expression in some of the articles mentioned in the 4^th part of the constitution. Such as :

1. To organize village Panchayats and endow them with such powers as may enable them to function as units of self government. 

2. To promote the educational and economic interests of SC’s ST’s and weaker sections of the people. 

3. To promote cottage industries on an individual and cooperative basis. 

4. To take steps for preventing and improving the breeds of milk and drought cattle, including cows and prohibition of slaughter of cows. 

5. Prohibition of consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injuries to health (except for medical purpose).

Liberal Principles: These principles are embedded in the following provisions.

1. To secure uniform civil code for the citizens throughout the territory of India. 

2. To provide free and compulsory education for the children up to the age of 14 years of age. 

3. To organize agriculture and animal husbandry on modem and scientific lines. 

4. To take steps to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public service of the state. 

5. Article 49 provides that it is the obligation of the state to protect every historical monument or place for national interest.

General Principles:

1. The state shall promote international peace and security. 

2. To maintain just and honorable relations between nations. 

3. To foster respect for international law and treaty obligations. 

4. To encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitrations.

Criticism:

1. The directives have been subjected to serve criticisms. 

2. These principles are considered as mere platitudes without any practical use for the people. 

3. There is no immediate social and economic program for the people. 

4. These principles do not attract the people as they are silent and not inspiring. 

5. These principles are neither properly classified nor logically arranged. 

6. There is no legal force behind them. 

7. These principles are not legally enforceable.

The framers of constitution of India drew the ideals, principles and even the organizational details from many sources. They have harrowed extensively from several well-known constitutions of the world.

It has incorporated the parliamentary system of England. The USA has taken mainly from the government of India Act 1935.

The objectives, resolution adopted by the constituent assembly in its first session became the basis of the preamble to constitution.

The first of Constituent Assembly was held on 9^th December, 1946. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was made as the President of the Constituent Assembly. The historic objectives resolution was moved in the Government Assembly by Nehru on 13^th December 1946 The beautifully worded draft of the objectives resolution cast the horoscope of the sovereign Democratic Republic. The Constituent Assembly appointed a number of committees to deal with the framing of the constitution. The committees worked hard and produced valuable reports. These reports were considered by the Constituent Assembly and later considered by the drafting committee. On 29^th August 1947, the Constituent Assembly appointed a Drafting Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar to scrutinize the draft of the constitution, prepared by constitutional advisor B. N. Rau.

The constitution of India was drafted by the Drafting Committee and was submitted to the president of the Constituent Assembly on 21^st February 1948. A large number of comments, criticism, and suggestions for the amendment of the draft were received. The Drafting Committee decided to issue a report of the draft constitution and was submitted to the President of the Assembly on 26^th October. 1948.

The second reading of the constitution was completed on 16^th Nov 1949 and on the next day the Constituent Assembly took up the third reading of the constitution. It was adopted on 26^th Nov 1949. The Constituent Assembly accomplished the tremendous task of framing the constitution in 2 years 11 months and 18 days. The constitution was finally signed by members of the Constituent Assembly. The same constitution came into force on 26^th Jan 1950.

Besides framing the constitution, the Constituent Assembly performed several other important functions like passing certain statues, adopting the national flag, declaring the national anthem, ratifying the decision in regard to the membership of the commonwealth and election of the first president of the Republic. The draft of the constitution contained 18 parts 8 schedules and 445 articles are considered as the most bulky and lengthiest in the world.

Sachidanda Sinha elected as a temporary president of the constituent assembly.

It was elected in the year 1946 under the cabinet mission plan.

The constituent assembly took 2 years 11 months and 18 days with 11 session to make the Indian constitution.

The constituent assembly accepts the draft of the Indian constitution on 26^th November 1949.

There were 389 members in the constituent assembly.

All the citizens who attained the particular age are having right to vote irrespective of caste, creed, religion is called universal adult franchaise.

1. Habeas corpus 

2. Prohibition 

3. Certiorari.

4. Oro – warrant.

The Constitution empowers the Supreme Court and the High Courts to issue writs or special kinds of orders for the protection of the fundamental rights as well as the legal rights of individuals.

1. Right to equality. 

2. Right to liberty. 

3. Right against exploitation. 

4. Right to freedom of religion. 

5. Cultural and educational rights.

6. Right to constitutional remedies.

RTE stands right to education which means all the children in India are entitled to get compulsory and free education. The 86^th amendment act of 2002 provides an opportunity to get free and compulsory education to all the children from the age 6 to 14 years.

Parliament passed the compulsory education act on 2009 and in compliance of the central government, the Karnataka government framed rules and enforced from 28^th April 2012. Main provisions of RTE.

1. All the children from the age of 6 to 14 should get free and compulsory education. 

2. The responsibility of the parents are to send their children to the school. 

3. The provisions are made to ensure the education facilities especially to the weaker section and child belonging to a disadvantaged group. 

4. The central and state government have jointly responsible to carry over this scheme. 

5. To provide the education to all the children, the government should establish the schools accesses to the children. 

6. The government should bear the expenses of education and should pay the same to education institutions.

7. The concerned BEO and DDPI should have responsibility to look after this.

This statement is True. 

• This will ensure that competent candidates are recruited to the post of judges. 
• It will also ensure that the judges do not indulge in corrupt practices. Thus, the independence of the judiciary will be maintained.

Areas delimited for the purpose of election are called constituencies. Each state or union territory is divided into elected areas or territorial constituencies as parliamentary constituencies.

The constituent assembly set up a drafting committee of 7 members with Dr. Ambedkar as its chairman. The constituent assembly spent more than 2 years in thoroughly discussing and enacting the constitution.

In paedogenetic parthenogenesis (paedogenesis) the larvae produce a new generation of larvae ” by parthenogenesis. It occurs in the sporocysts and Redia larvae of liver fluke. It is also seen in the larvae of some insects, 

e.g. Gall fly.

There were 11 fundamental duties were there in the constitution.

Asexual Reproduction: 

1. Involves only one parent 

2. Only mitotic cell division takes place. 

3. Off springs are genetically identical to parent. 

4. Gametes are not produced

Sexual Reproduction: 

1. Involves two parents (male & female) 

2. Both mitosis & meiosis takes place. 

3. Off springs genetically differ from the parents.

4. Gametes are produced.

Part III of Indian constitution.

44^th amendment removes the right to property from fundamental rights.

Article 32 refers to right to constitutional remedies.

श्रावण वद अमावस

1. Freedom of speech and expression. 

2. Freedom of rally. 

3. Freedom of association. 

4. Freedom of travelling in India. 

5. Freedom of residing in India. 

6. Freedom of carrying any job.

सही उत्तर है आर्य

सही उत्तर है मोढेरा

सही उत्तर है सोमनाथ

सही उत्तर है अहमदाबाद

Because: 

1. Country’s vast size and electorates made these elections unusual. 

2. The year 1952, it was a big test for poor and illiterate country. 

3. Till then, democracy had been existed only in the prosperous countries mainly in Europe and North America where everyone was almost literate.

सही उत्तर है वड़नगर

India’s experiment with universal adult franchise was considered bold and risky.

(D) सीद्दी सैयद की जाली – भावनगर

The electronic voting machine was used in India in 1990 for first time for more accuracy and fair dealing while counting as well as it helps to check Booth capturing and other malpractices.

सही विकल्प है (C) नदियों

In the first election, the authorities, who were responsible for conducting it, would give a ballot paper to the voter. He could drop it in the box of the candidate of his choice. In the polling booth there would be boxes on which the signs (symbols) of varipus candidates were prominently displayed. In those days many people were not literate. India had adopted the system of universal adult franchise.

After the first two elections, this system of voting was changed. The later ballot papers contained the names and signs of various candidates. The voters had to place a mark against the candidate of their choice. For nearly 40 years, this practice continued. By the end of the 1990s, electronic voting machines were introduced. Since 2004, the entire country has been using this electronic voting system. This system is easier and it can be used even by illiterate people.

(d) Hegemonic position is fixed. Once a hegemon, always a hegemon.

first General Elections conducted in 1952.